tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-69793878244074996982024-03-13T16:32:35.331+00:00omnibusAgnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona nobis pacem.emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.comBlogger269125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-41808021258235676162018-02-18T05:09:00.001+00:002018-02-18T05:09:45.949+00:00Don Camillo<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pOx0a_m5xBw" frameborder="0" allow="autoplay; encrypted-media" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-27367657128728056042018-01-23T14:07:00.000+00:002018-01-23T14:07:45.287+00:00Les BienveillantesFrères humains, laissez-moi vous raconter comment ça s’est passé. On n’est pas votre frère, rétorque-rez-vous, et on ne veut pas le savoir. Et c’est bien vrai qu’il s’agit d’une sombre histoire, mais édifianteaussi, un véritable conte moral, je vous l’assure. <br />
<br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Littell">Jonathan Littell</a> est né à New York, en 1967. <a href="https://ec56229aec51f1baff1d-185c3068e22352c56024573e929788ff.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/attachments/original/9/1/3/002618913.pdf">Les Bienveillantes</a>, sa première œuvre littéraire, a été récompensé par le prix Goncourt et le Grand Prix du roman de l’Académie francaise 2006.<br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-4889498892869334352017-04-09T00:00:00.000+01:002017-04-09T00:00:00.378+01:00runes<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BwAYkYHmQ5k" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-16763413905765978652017-04-08T23:59:00.001+01:002017-04-08T23:59:11.886+01:00ñ<br />
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/J7vreUPCl9c" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-79423107381463961312017-04-08T23:55:00.000+01:002017-04-14T05:23:46.863+01:00scriptum<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QvGPeezXDIg" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/btn0-Vce5ug" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lgsQndSyfHg" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0zZs6rchslY" width="560"></iframe><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ckCMuSkauhU" width="560"></iframe><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mC0wsuowbRA" width="560"></iframe><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/j9hzK0K1L4I" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
<br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-44133638036004271212016-12-17T04:08:00.001+00:002016-12-17T04:08:59.215+00:00Jacques Brel - "Le Moribond"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
"<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun" target="_blank"><b>Seasons in the Sun</b></a>" is an English-language adaptation of the song "Le Moribond" by Belgian singer-songwriter<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Brel" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jacques Brel">Jacques Brel</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup>with lyrics by American singer-poet<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_McKuen" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rod McKuen">Rod McKuen</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>It became a worldwide<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Song">hit</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in 1974 for<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadians" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Canadians">Canadian</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>singer<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Jacks" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Terry Jacks">Terry Jacks</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and became a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christmas_number_one_singles_(UK)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of Christmas number one singles (UK)">Christmas Number 1</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in 1999 for<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westlife" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Westlife">Westlife</a>. Jacks's version is one of the fewer than forty all-time<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singles_(music)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Singles (music)">singles</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to have<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_singles_worldwide" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of best-selling singles worldwide">sold 10 million</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>copies worldwide.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
The song is a dying<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagonist" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a>'s farewell to relatives and friends. The protagonist mentions how hard it will be to die now that the spring season has arrived (historically, spring is portrayed as the season of new life).</div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: none; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Original_version">Original version</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #555555; margin-right: 0.25em;"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #555555; margin-left: 0.25em;"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
The original French-language song is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardonicism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sardonicism">sardonic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ballad, in which the speaker gives<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhanded_compliment" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Backhanded compliment">backhanded farewells</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to his<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adultery" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Adultery">adulterous</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>wife and her lover and the priest he disagreed with while sarcastically expressing his wish that there should be singing and dancing when he is buried. Before Jacks popularized the song, earlier recordings had been released by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingston_Trio" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="The Kingston Trio">The Kingston Trio</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>with the first cover version of McKuen's translation in 1963 and the British band<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fortunes" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="The Fortunes">The Fortunes</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in 1968.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
</div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom: none; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: 2; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Terry_Jacks_version">Terry Jacks version</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; unicode-bidi: isolate; user-select: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #555555; margin-right: 0.25em;"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color: #555555; margin-left: 0.25em;"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
Jacks's version was recorded in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in 1973 by Jacks and his wife at the time,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Jacks" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Susan Jacks">Susan Jacks</a>. They made the decision to record the song when the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach_Boys" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Beach Boys">Beach Boys</a>, who recorded a version with Terry Jacks producing, decided to abandon their recording.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
Although prior English-language versions had attempted to retain the sarcastic tone of the original French song, Jacks opted to make it more<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimentality" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sentimentality">sentimental</a>. In each verse, the protagonist bids farewell to someone important in his life:</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; list-style-image: url("data:image/svg+xml,%3C%3Fxml%20version%3D%221.0%22%20encoding%3D%22UTF-8%22%3F%3E%0A%3Csvg%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20version%3D%221.1%22%20width%3D%225%22%20height%3D%2213%22%3E%0A%3Ccircle%20cx%3D%222.5%22%20cy%3D%229.5%22%20r%3D%222.5%22%20fill%3D%22%2300528c%22%2F%3E%0A%3C%2Fsvg%3E%0A"); list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The first verse refers to "a trusted friend" that he had known since he was "9 or 10". The original specifically names the friend as "Émile", which Jacks's versions does not.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The second verse refers to the protagonist's father (who unsuccessfully tried to warn him of his lifestyle); this verse differed from the original as it was sung in a manner which downplayed the original's bitter tone of regret.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The third verse refers to "Michelle, my little one" (implied to be his daughter, who will now grow up without her father). This verse completely replaced the third and fourth verses referring to infidelity in the French original.</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
It was released under Jacks's own name on his label, Goldfish Records and immediately topped the record charts in the U.S. (where it was released on<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Records_(1950s-70s)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bell Records (1950s-70s)">Bell Records</a>), in Canada, and the UK,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-British_Hit_Singles_.26_Albums_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-British_Hit_Singles_.26_Albums-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>selling over 14 million copies worldwide.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
Jacks's version was released in the United States in December 1973, and made the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Billboard Hot 100"><i>Billboard</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Hot 100</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>a month later. On March 2, 1974, the song began a three-week run at No. 1 atop the Hot 100, and remained in the top 40 until almost<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Day" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Memorial Day">Memorial Day</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>weekend. Jacks's version also spent one week on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Adult_Contemporary" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hot Adult Contemporary">Easy Listening</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>charts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Billboard</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ranked it as the No. 2 song for 1974.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Although he released several other singles that were moderately successful in Canada, "Seasons in the Sun" would become Jacks's only major solo hit in the United States.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In Canada, the single (Gold Fish GF 100) reached #1 on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM_(magazine)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RPM (magazine)">RPM Magazine</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>charts January 26, 1974, and remained there 4 weeks.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
Though the song enjoyed contemporary success, modern criticism has tended to be more critical of Jacks's overly sentimentalized rewriting of the original song. Jacks's version is commonly held up as an example of bad music, having been called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_music_considered_the_worst" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of music considered the worst">one of the worst pop songs ever recorded</a>, and ranking number five on a CNN poll in 2006.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasons_in_the_Sun#cite_note-7" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup></div>
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MB58PuNYO8o" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Adieu l'Émile je t'aimais bien<br />
Adieu l'Émile je t'aimais bien tu sais<br />
On a chanté les mêmes vins<br />
On a chanté les mêmes filles<br />
On a chanté les mêmes chagrins<br />
Adieu l'Émile je vais mourir<br />
<br />
C'est dur de mourir au printemps tu sais<br />
Mais je pars aux fleurs la paix dans l'âme<br />
Car vu que tu es bon comme du pain blanc<br />
Je sais que tu prendras soin de ma femme<br />
<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Je veux qu'on s'amuse comme des fous<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Quand c'est qu'on me mettra dans le trou<br />
<br />
Adieu Curé je t'aimais bien<br />
Adieu Curé je t'aimais bien tu sais<br />
On n'était pas du même bord<br />
On n'était pas du même chemin<br />
Mais on cherchait le même port<br />
Adieu Curé je vais mourir<br />
<br />
C'est dur de mourir au printemps tu sais<br />
Mais je pars aux fleurs la paix dans l'âme<br />
Car vu que tu étais son confident<br />
Je sais que tu prendras soin de ma femme<br />
<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Je veux qu'on s'amuse comme des fous<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Quand c'est qu'on me mettra dans le trou<br />
<br />
Adieu l'Antoine je t'aimais pas bien<br />
Adieu l'Antoine je t'aimais pas bien tu sais<br />
J'en crève de crever aujourd'hui<br />
Alors que toi tu es bien vivant<br />
Et même plus solide que l'ennui<br />
Adieu l'Antoine je vais mourir<br />
<br />
C'est dur de mourir au printemps tu sais<br />
Mais je pars aux fleurs la paix dans l'âme<br />
Car vu que tu étais son amant<br />
Je sais que tu prendras soin de ma femme<br />
<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Je veux qu'on s'amuse comme des fous<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Quand c'est qu'on me mettra dans le trou<br />
<br />
Adieu ma femme je t'aimais bien<br />
Adieu ma femme je t'aimais bien tu sais<br />
Mais je prends le train pour le Bon Dieu<br />
Je prends le train qui est avant le tien<br />
Mais on prend tous le train qu'on peut<br />
Adieu ma femme je vais mourir<br />
<br />
C'est dur de mourir au printemps tu sais<br />
Mais je pars aux fleurs les yeux fermés ma femme<br />
Car vu que je les ai fermés souvent<br />
Je sais que tu prendras soin de mon âme<br />
<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Je veux qu'on s'amuse comme des fous<br />
Je veux qu'on rie, je veux qu'on danse<br />
Quand c'est qu'on me mettra dans le trou<br />
<br />
Written by Jacques Brel • Copyright © Carlin America Inc<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-tPcc1ftj8E" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Goodbye to you my trusted friend<br />
We've known each other since we were nine or ten<br />
Together we've climbed hills and trees<br />
Learned of love and ABC's<br />
Skinned our hearts and skinned our knees<br />
Goodbye my friend it's hard to die<br />
When all the birds are singing in the sky<br />
Now that spring is in the air<br />
Pretty girls are everywhere<br />
Think of me and I'll be there<br />
<br />
We had joy, we had fun<br />
We had seasons in the sun<br />
But the hills that we climbed<br />
Were just seasons out of time<br />
<br />
Goodbye Papa please pray for me<br />
I was the black sheep of the family<br />
You tried to teach me right from wrong<br />
Too much wine and too much song<br />
Wonder how I got along<br />
Goodbye Papa it's hard to die<br />
When all the birds are singing in the sky<br />
Now that the spring is in the air<br />
Little children everywhere<br />
When you see them, I'll be there<br />
<br />
We had joy, we had fun<br />
We had seasons in the sun<br />
But the wine and the song<br />
Like the seasons have all gone<br />
We had joy, we had fun<br />
We had seasons in the sun<br />
But the wine and the song<br />
Like the seasons have all gone<br />
<br />
Songwriters<br />
BREL, JACQUES ROMAN/BREL, JACQUES ROMAN<br />
<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0rqIuFKInWs" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Adios a tI, mi amigo fiel, <br />
nos conocimos desde la niñez. <br />
Juntos jugamos y era ayer, <br />
Aprendimos del amor <br />
y jugamos con el sol, <br />
<br />
Adios a ti porque morí, <br />
cuando las aves por el cielo van. <br />
La primavera ya esta aqui, <br />
caras lindas veo pasar, <br />
piensa en mi, estar <br />
<br />
[CORO I] <br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
todo fue idea de tiempo <br />
no supimos que pensar. <br />
<br />
Adios papá reza por mI, <br />
aún me arrepiento de lo que yo fuI, <br />
tu me enseñaste el bien del mal. <br />
Hubo mucha confusión, <br />
me pregunto como fue, <br />
<br />
Adios papá porque morI, <br />
cuando las aves por el cielo van, <br />
la primavera ya esta aqui <br />
Niños sueñan con jugar, <br />
piensa en mi, estare allá. <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
pero el vino y la canción <br />
ya se fueron con el sol. <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
pero el vino y la canción <br />
ya se fueron con el sol. <br />
<br />
Adios Michelle pequeña flor, <br />
me diste amor y me ayudaste a ver la luz, <br />
me levantabas con amor <br />
cuando estaba triste en mi, <br />
todo lo que yo sufrI, <br />
<br />
Adios Michelle porque morí <br />
cuando las aves por el cielo van <br />
la primavera ya esta aqui, <br />
con sus flores de color. <br />
Si estuvieramos los dos... <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
y las estrellas que habIa, <br />
eran solo las del mar, <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
pero el vino y la canción <br />
ya se fueron con el sol, <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
todo fue idea de tiempo <br />
no supimos que pensar, <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
pero el vino y la canción <br />
ya se fueron con el sol, <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol <br />
y las estrellas que habIa, <br />
eran solo las del mar. <br />
<br />
Hubo mas alegría y estaciones en el sol..<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sligeeCxhoQ" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Adios a ti mi amigo fiel, <br />
juntos pasamos la feliz niñes, <br />
en estudiar y en juegos fue, <br />
que aprendimos a leer y aprendimos a querer <br />
<br />
duro es morir, amigo fiel, <br />
cuando las aves hoy cantando estan, <br />
cuando florece el mes de abril, <br />
que hay rosas lindas por doquier,que mi tumba adornaran, <br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol, <br />
pero todo acabo, <br />
yo me voy junto al creador <br />
<br />
adios papa,reza por mi <br />
la oveja negra en la familia fui <br />
por ti aprendi del bien y el mal <br />
pero nunca lo entendi y hoy es tarde para mi <br />
adios papa voy a morir <br />
cuando las aves hoy cantando estan <br />
cuando florece el mes de abril <br />
que hay rosas lindas por doquier, que mi tumba adornaran <br />
<br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol, <br />
pero todo acabo, <br />
yo me voy junto al creador <br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol , <br />
pero todo acabo, <br />
yo me voy junto al creador <br />
<br />
Adios Maria mi ilucion <br />
cuanto te hice padeser por mi, <br />
te suplico tu perdon <br />
y sabre que hoy al partir no me gurdas mas rencor <br />
adios Maria partire <br />
cuando las aves hoy cantando estan, <br />
cuando florece el mes de abril <br />
y las rosas por doquier ,mis recuerdos llevaran <br />
<br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol, <br />
pero todo acabo <br />
yo me voy junto al creador <br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol, <br />
pero todo acabo <br />
yo me voy junto al creador <br />
todo fue divercion al correr bajo del sol, <br />
pero todo acabo <br />
yo me voy junto al creador....<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QPggng4RJE4" width="560"></iframe><br /></div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-90338356527684706422016-09-11T17:43:00.000+01:002016-09-11T17:43:07.271+01:00roots of English<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2OynrY8JCDM" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<br />
Is English Really a Germanic Language?emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-28794579869899232732016-08-28T17:12:00.001+01:002016-08-28T17:12:44.619+01:00The Korean alphabet<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul" target="_blank"><b>Korean alphabet</b></a>, known in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="South Korea">South Korea</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://mooc.yonsei.ac.kr/ksh/" target="_blank"><b>Hangul</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a>(also transcribed<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Hangeul</b>) and as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Chosŏn'gŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="North Korea">North Korea</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="China">China</a>, is the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>that has been used to write the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Korean language">Korean language</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>since the 15th century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WDL1_1-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul#cite_note-WDL1-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>It was created during the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Joseon">Joseon Dynasty</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in 1443 by King Sejong the Great. Now, the alphabet is the official<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Writing system">script</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of both South Korea and North Korea, and co-official in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanbian_Korean_Autonomous_Prefecture" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture">Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture</a>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changbai_Korean_Autonomous_County" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Changbai Korean Autonomous County">Changbai Korean Autonomous County</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of China's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilin" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jilin">Jilin Province</a>. In South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hanja">Hanja</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(Chinese characters) in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. Hanja is still used to some extent in art, academic and government documents, newspapers, and high level Korean in South Korea; however, North Korea banned the use of Hanja in public since 1964.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul#cite_note-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters. However, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="ko">한</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>han</i>, each of which transcribes a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Syllable">syllable</a>. That is, although the syllable<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="ko">한</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>han</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>may look like a single character, it is actually composed of three letters:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="ko">ㅎ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>h</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="ko">ㅏ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>a</i>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="ko">ㄴ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>n</i>. Each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Consonant">consonant</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and one<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vowel">vowel</a>. These blocks are then arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks. The number of mathematically possible distinct blocks is 11,172 (see "South Korean order" below), though there are far fewer possible syllables allowed by Korean<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a>, and not all phonotactically possible syllables occur in actual Korean words. For a phonological description, see<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_phonology" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Korean phonology">Korean phonology</a></i>. Among possible 11,172 Hangul syllables the most frequent 256 have cumulative frequency of 88.2% and with the top 512 ones it reaches 99.9%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul#cite_note-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-4534663968100348612016-08-14T19:35:00.000+01:002016-08-15T02:05:38.646+01:00IPA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XlSeYt6PN6s" width="560"></iframe><br />
<h1 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #111111; font-family: Oswald, "Open Sans", Arial, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px; word-wrap: break-word;">
</h1>
<h1 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #111111; font-family: Oswald, "Open Sans", Arial, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px; word-wrap: break-word;">
<a href="http://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-sounds/ipa-chart-with-sounds/" target="_blank">IPA Chart With Sounds</a></h1>
<h1 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #111111; font-family: Oswald, "Open Sans", Arial, "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px; word-wrap: break-word;">
</h1>
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/f4Q1QN-SFCM" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" target="_blank"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>International Phonetic Alphabet</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(unofficially—though commonly—abbreviated<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>IPA</b>)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is an<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>system of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic notation</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>based primarily on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. It was devised by the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>as a standardized representation of the sounds of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Oral language">oral language</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-IPA_1999-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The IPA is used by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lexicography">lexicographers</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>students and teachers,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linguistics">linguists</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech-language_pathology" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Speech-language pathology">speech-language pathologists</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Singer">singers</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Actor">actors</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>creators, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Translation">translators</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-world_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-world-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of oral language:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>, and the separation of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Word">words</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Syllable">syllables</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IPA_1999_2-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-IPA_1999-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>To represent additional qualities of speech, such as tooth gnashing,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lisp">lisping</a>, and sounds made with a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleft_lip_and_palate" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cleft lip and palate">cleft palate</a>, an extended set of symbols called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>may be used.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-world_3-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-world-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two basic types,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span>, or with a letter plus diacritics,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̺ʰ]</span>, depending on how precise one wishes to be.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[note 2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Often, slashes are used to signal broad or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_transcription" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phonemic transcription">phonemic transcription</a>; thus,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is less specific than, and could refer to, either<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̺ʰ]</span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span>, depending on the context and language.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
Occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-6" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics, and four<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>marks in the IPA. These are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#cite_note-7" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup></div>
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ergntBoeAHM" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-e66ByetpDY" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0HeujZ45OZE" width="560"></iframe><br /></div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-74661933590481753712016-07-31T22:10:00.001+01:002016-08-18T04:42:31.662+01:00Latin pronunciation<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_enn7NIo-S0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<br />
What Latin Sounded Like - and how we know<br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-82853302320071945962016-07-31T22:10:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:39:59.798+01:00Vedas <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SgR9sdy6y8A" width="420"></iframe><br />
<br />
Published on Mar 25, 2013<br />
This is a comprehensive collection of the spiritual texts recited in Sanskrit with translations in English & Hindi</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-10589386274515672702016-07-31T19:29:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:42:19.603+01:00समाधि<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi" target="_blank"><b>Samādhi</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="sa">समाधि</span>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><small style="font-size: 11.9px;">Hindi pronunciation: </small><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Hindi_and_Urdu" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for Hindi and Urdu">[səˈmaːd̪ʱi]</a></span>), also called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%C4%81patti" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Samāpatti">samāpatti</a></i>, in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogic" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yogic">yogic</a>schools refers to a state of meditative consciousness. It is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Meditation">meditative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>absorption or trance, attained by the practice of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_(disambiguation)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dhyāna (disambiguation)">dhyāna</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarbacker201213_1-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarbacker201213-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In<i>samādhi</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>the mind becomes still. It is a state of being totally aware of the present moment; a one-pointedness of mind<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-dictionary.com_2-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi#cite_note-dictionary.com-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[web 1]</a></sup>.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-access_3-0" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi#cite_note-access-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[web 2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rāja yoga">Ashtanga Yoga</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>tradition, it is the eighth and final limb identified in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sūtras</a></i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patanjali" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi#cite_note-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samadhi#cite_note-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-29879405051909168802016-07-31T19:09:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:41:30.733+01:00Pali<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Several years ago, concurrently with its ongoing research into Vipassana, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/About-Vipassana-Research-Institute" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: #108acd; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">Vipassana Research Institute</a><span style="color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(VRI) assumed a monumental undertaking: the publication of an authentic version of the <a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/CSCD-ROM" target="_blank">Pali literature in Devanagari script</a>. To understand the significance of this project, it is necessary to briefly describe the sources of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/VRI-Meditation" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: #108acd; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">Vipassana Meditation</a><span style="color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">.</span></b><br />
<br />
<b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="http://www.tipitaka.org/" target="_blank">This web site</a> is based on the </span><a href="http://www.tipitaka.org/chattha" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #323274; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana</a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>CD published by the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/Home.aspx" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #323274; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank">Vipassana Research Institute</a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">. Based at Dhamma Giri, Igatpuri, near Mumbai, India, the Vipassana Research Institute also publishes literature & disseminates information related to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/VRI-Introduction" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #323274; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank">Vipassana Meditation Technique</a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> as taught by</span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/Teachers-4.aspx" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #323274; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank">S.N.Goenka</a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in the tradition of</span><a href="http://www.vridhamma.org/Teachers-3.aspx" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #323274; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank">Sayagyi U Ba Khin</a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">.</span><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" /><br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "Times Ext Roman", Gentium, "Arial Unicode MS", Tahoma, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times ext roman" , "gentium" , "arial unicode ms" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Vipassana is a universal, scientific method towards purifying the mind. It is the practical essence of the teachings of the Buddha, who taught Dhamma - the Universal Law of Nature.</span> </span></b><br />
<b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span> </b><br />
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" target="_blank"><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">Pali</b></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(</span><i style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Unicode" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: normal;" title="ISO transliteration">Pāli</span></i><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">) is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakrit" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>language native to the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">. It is widely studied because it is the language of much of the earliest<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_literature" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Extant literature">extant literature</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>as collected in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tripiṭaka">Tipiṭaka</a></i><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and is the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_language" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sacred language">sacred language</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Theravada">Buddhism</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">.</span><br />
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div id="H_billboard" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; height: auto !important; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 15.84px; margin: 0px 0px 10px; min-height: 180px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; width: 680px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div id="H_meta" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 2em 0px 1em; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 680px;">
<div id="H_docTitle" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html" target="_blank">Pali Language Study Aids</a></div>
<div id="H_copyright" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.96px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#F_termsOfUse" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.96px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="See copyright details">© 2012</a></div>
<div id="H_copyright" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.96px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a name='more'></a><div id="H_docTitle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 24px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 36px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kelly/warder-key/index.html" target="_blank">Answer Key to Warder's 'Introduction to Pali'</a></div>
<div id="H_docSubtitle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
Exercises 1-21</div>
<div id="H_docBy" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 12pt; margin: 2px 0px 0px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
by</div>
<div id="H_docAuthor" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 27px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
John Kelly</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="H_content" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fffeff; border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18.72px; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 10px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 1; width: 660px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div id="COPYRIGHTED_TEXT_CHUNK" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div class="contents" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h1 style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 1px; line-height: normal; margin: 1.2em 0px 0.67em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Contents</h1>
<ul style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#starting" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Getting started with Pali</a></li>
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#onlineref" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali language reference (online)</a></li>
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#referencebooks" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali language reference books</a></li>
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#textbooks" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali textbooks (an annotated bibliography)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="chapter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(136, 136, 136); border-bottom-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 3em 0px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 2em; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h1 style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 1px; line-height: normal; margin: 1.2em 0px 0.67em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="starting" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Getting started with Pali</a> <a class="back" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#top" style="background: url("img/up1.gif") 0px 0px no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 16px; position: relative; text-decoration: none; top: -3px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Go to top of page"> </a></h1>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.33em 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
It's not difficult to learn a little Pali through self-study, using a textbook or two as a guide. Many people find it helpful to study with others, either in a formal classroom setting or in a more relaxed Pali study group. For many of us, the goal is not to become expert scholars and translators of the language, but simply to become acquainted with enough of the basics of the language to enrich our personal understanding of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>suttas</i>and the Buddha's teachings. For self-study, Warder's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#warder" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Introduction to Pali</i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or de Silva's<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#desilva" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Pali Primer</i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>are the basic texts. Johansson's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#johansson" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Pali Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar</i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is also immensely helpful. See the list of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#textbooks" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali language textbooks</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>for more recommended titles.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.33em 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Formal classroom courses in Pali are offered at many universities with strong Eastern Religions departments as well as at several Buddhist studies centers and institutes (see the University of Minnesota's list of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="offsite" href="http://www.carla.umn.edu/lctl/db/" style="background: url("img/offsite.gif") right top no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 8px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="offsite" title="Visit www.carla.umn.edu">schools that teach less commonly taught languages</a>, such as Pali). Some university-level Pali courses require previous acquaintance with Sanskrit. If you are looking for a Pali teacher, consider asking around at a university to see if there might be a graduate student willing to tutor you or your study group, perhaps for a small fee. Some professors may be willing to let you audit a course without going through the official university registration process.</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(136, 136, 136); border-bottom-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 3em 0px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 2em; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h1 style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 1px; line-height: normal; margin: 1.2em 0px 0.67em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="onlineref" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali language reference (online)</a> <a class="back" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#top" style="background: url("img/up1.gif") 0px 0px no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 16px; position: relative; text-decoration: none; top: -3px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Go to top of page"> </a></h1>
<dl style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.33em 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/diacritics.html" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Coping with Pali Diacritics</a></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A review of the various methods of phonetically representating Pali on computers and in print.</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammadarsa/index.html" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali Grammar Summary Cards</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><small style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.52px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">[Dhammadarsa Bhikkhu]</small></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Concise tabular summaries of the rules of Pali grammar, formatted for convenient printing in the form of cards for study or reference. Includes examples and vocabulary lists adapted from A.P. Buddhadatta's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>New Pali Course</i>.</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanatusita/index.html#pdf_pali_tables" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali Verb Conjugation and Noun/Pronoun Declension Tables</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><small style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.52px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">[Bhikkhu Nyanatusita]</small></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">This collection of tables condenses a huge amount of grammatical information into just a few pages.</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sltp/index.html" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">SLTP Tipitaka</a></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A complete edition of the Pali Tipitaka in romanized Pali, now hosted here at Access to Insight. Courtesy of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="offsite" href="http://www.metta.lk/sltp/index.html" style="background: url("img/offsite.gif") right top no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 8px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="offsite" title="Visit www.metta.lk">The Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project (SLTP)</a>.</dd></dl>
</div>
<div class="chapter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(136, 136, 136); border-bottom-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 3em 0px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 2em; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h1 style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 1px; line-height: normal; margin: 1.2em 0px 0.67em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="referencebooks" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali language reference books</a> <a class="back" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#top" style="background: url("img/up1.gif") 0px 0px no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 16px; position: relative; text-decoration: none; top: -3px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Go to top of page"> </a></h1>
<dl style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.33em 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Buddhist Dictionary</i>, by Nyanatiloka Thera</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988. 260pp. About $20, from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#pariyatti" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Pariyatti">Pariyatti</a>, and the<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#bps" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Buddhist Publication Society">Buddhist Publication Society</a>.
<br />
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
This one is a classic. It's a fascinating mixture of Pali and English words, arranged in English word order (e.g., "Killing... Kiñcana... Kiriya... Knowledge..."). Most entries have thorough explanations with references to passages in the Pali canon. Excellent tool for beginner and veteran, alike.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Concise Pali-English Dictionary</i>, by A.P. Buddhadatta</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989. 295pp. Available by mail from the publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007, India.
<br />
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Very handy for quickly finding the meaning of a word, without the detailed grammatical and contextual analysis offered by the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#ped" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali-English Dictionary</a>.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="cone" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A Dictionary of Pali</a></i></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2001. Available from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#pariyatti" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Pariyatti">Pariyatti</a>.
<br />
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
This impressive new dictionary has several improvements over the classic<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#ped" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">PED</a>, including the use of Pali quotations from the Canon to illustrate the meaning of words, instead of simply references to those passages. As of 2012, two volumes have been published: Part I (A-Kh) and Part II (G-N). I don't know when the final volume will be published.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>English-Pali Dictionary</i>, by A.P. Buddhadatta</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">London: Pali Text Society, 1979. 588pp. Available from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#wisdom" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Wisdom Publications">Wisdom Publications</a>.
<br />
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
What are the various Pali words for "mind"? How do you say "penknife" in Pali? (!) This handy book can be particularly valuable when exploring Pali-English translations — your own or others'.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="ped" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali-English Dictionary</a></i></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">London: Pali Text Society, 1986. 754pp. Available from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#pariyatti" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Pariyatti">Pariyatti</a>.
<br />
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
The must-have reference tool for the Pali student. Affectionately known as the PED.</div>
</dd></dl>
</div>
<div class="chapter" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(136, 136, 136); border-bottom-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 3em 0px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 2em; vertical-align: baseline;">
<h1 style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 1px; line-height: normal; margin: 1.2em 0px 0.67em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="textbooks" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pali textbooks (an annotated bibliography)</a> <a class="back" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#top" style="background: url("img/up1.gif") 0px 0px no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 25.92px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 16px; position: relative; text-decoration: none; top: -3px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Go to top of page"> </a></h1>
<dl style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.33em 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="warder" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Introduction to Pali</i></a>, by A.K. Warder</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
London: Pali Text Society, 1963; rev. 1991. 464pp., with exercises. Available from<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#pariyatti" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Pariyatti">Pariyatti</a>. Companion audio CD also available.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Known popularly as "Warder," this is<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>the</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>standard Pali textbook used today. It is systematic and thorough, ideally suited to those with some prior familiarity with basic linguistic concepts (case, declension, gender, etc.) or to the motivated newcomer. Although beginners may at first find some of Warder's explanations impenetrable, it's still the best overall Pali textbook around.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
The companion CD is well worth purchasing, as it gives the student a good idea of what "real" spoken Pali should sound like.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Although each chapter contains numerous exercises or passages for reading and translation, the latest edition contains answers to only the first seven exercises. Several independently prepared answer keys are currently available:</div>
<ul style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">"<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kelly/warder-key/index.html" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Answer Key to Warder's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Introduction to Pali"</i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(John Kelly) covers the Pali-to-English, English-to-Pali, and "passages for reading" exercises, in both literal and fluent translations, for chapters 7-21.</li>
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/brahmali/index.html" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">"A Key to the Exercises in A.K. Warder's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Introduction to Pali"</i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(Brahmali Bhikkhu) provides meticulously annotated answers to the Pali-to-English, English-to-Pali, and "passages for reading" exercises for chapters 7-30.</li>
<li style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">See also the Pali Text Society's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="offsite" href="http://www.palitext.com/subpages/intropali.htm" style="background: url("img/offsite.gif") right top no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; margin: 0px; min-height: 15px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 8px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="offsite" title="Visit www.palitext.com">answers to English-to-Pali Exercises 7-30</a>.</li>
</ul>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="desilva" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Pali Primer</i></a>, by Lily de Silva</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Igatpuri, India: Vipassana Research Institute, 1994. 154pp. Available from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/sources.html#pariyatti" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Get contact info for Pariyatti">Pariyatti</a>.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
This is a good first book for those who think they're not ready yet for<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#warder" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Warder</a>. Each chapter focuses on a single concept of Pali grammar, and contains numerous exercises. I found, though, that there comes a point in the book (somewhere around Lesson 11) when the brief grammatical introductions in the beginning of the lessons begin to fall short. In particular, there is no explanation of word order in Pali sentences. At this point,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/pali.html#warder" style="border: 0px; color: #1e3478; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Warder</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>can come to the rescue. An Appendix to the book, containing solutions to the exercises, is reportedly forthcoming from the publisher.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" id="johansson" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Pali Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar</i></a>, by Rune E.A. Johansson</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Former title:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Pali Buddhist Texts Explained to the Beginner</i>. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, No. 14. London: Routledge/Curzon, 1998. 160pp.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
This book consists of 52 short chapters, each consisting of a brief passage from the Pali canon along with a word-for-word grammatical analysis and translation. Useful to the student with some prior grasp of the fundamentals of Pali, or when used in parallel with Warder (above). It also stands well on its own for newcomers who wish to develop a "feel" for the language. An excellent 25-page summary of Pali grammar appears in the back of the book. The book has been difficult to find in the US lately, although it has surfaced in bookshops in Britain and Asia. If you can't find it, write to the publisher: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, Kejsergade 2, DK-1155 Copenhagen K.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>A New Course in Reading Pali: Entering the Word of the Buddha</i></dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1998. 207pp. ISBN 81-208-1440-1 cloth, 81-208-1441-x paper. About $20.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
I haven't seen this one yet, although I've heard several favorable reports about it. From the dust jacket (courtesy of Henry Grossi):</div>
<blockquote style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 1.12em 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; quotes: "" ""; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>This book is intended to serve as an introduction to the reading of Pali texts. For that purpose it uses authentic readings especially compiled for the purpose drawn largely from Theravada canonical works, both prose and poetry. The readings are in Roman script, and carefully graded for difficulty, but they have also been selected so that each of them is a meaningful and complete reading in itself, so as to introduce some basic concepts and ways of thought of Theravada Buddhism. This book thus offers an opportunity to become acquainted with the ways in which the teachings of the Buddha are embodied in the language; a sense that is impossible to determine from English translations. The book contains 12 lessons. Each of them has three parts: (1) a set of basic readings and an accompanying glossary, (2) grammatical notes on the forms of the lesson, and (3) a set of further readings with its own glossary. The further readings introduce no new grammatical points, but reinforce ones already presented and give further practice in them. The work concludes, fittingly, with the Buddha's first sermon, The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. A cumulative glossary and index to the grammar is also provided.</blockquote>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>An Elementary Pali Course</i>, by Narada Thera</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Second edition, 1952. Several on-line versions are available.</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>The New Pali Course — Parts I & II</i>, by A.P. Buddhadatta</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
1937; 268pp. Previously available from the Buddhist Cultural Centre, Sri Lanka.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Topics are arranged systematically in short, digestible chunks (e.g., "The Alphabet," "Pronunciation," "Parts of Speech"). Sometimes more explanation would be helpful. Lots of good exercises, but no answers are given. This would work best in a teacher-led course, rather than as a tool for self-study.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>Pali Language</i>, by E. Muller</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Delhi: Bharatiya Book Corporation, 1986. 144pp. Available at bookstores in Asia.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
A compact grammar, written in 1884. Sanksrit students may find it useful, as it compares and contrasts Pali and Sanskrit at every turn. Not recommended for the rank beginner.</div>
</dd>
<dt style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>A Pali Grammar</i>, by N.C. Vidyabhushan and M.K. Ghose</dt>
<dd style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Calcutta: Kiron Moy Ghose, 1982. 90pp. Available at bookstores in Asia.</div>
<div style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1.33em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Another Pali grammar, similar to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>The New Pali Course,</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>above, but without exercises. Useful as a compact reference book after you've learned the basics.</div>
</dd></dl>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<a href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/noncanon/fieldguide.html">Beyond the Tipitaka</a><br />
A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature<br />
© 2002<br />
A quick glance through the pages of the Pali Text Society's publications catalog should be enough to convince anyone that there is much more to classical Pali literature than the Tipitaka alone. Intermingled with the familiar Nikayas, Vinaya texts, and Abhidhamma are scores of titles with long, scarcely-pronounceable Pali names. Although many western students of Buddhism may be unacquainted with these works (indeed, most have never been translated into English), these books have for centuries played a crucial role in the development of Buddhist thought and practice across Asia and, ultimately, the West. In fact, in some countries they are as deeply treasured as the suttas themselves. But what are these ancient books, and what relevance do they have to the western student of Buddhism in the 21st century? Although complete answers to these questions lie well beyond the range of my abilities, I hope that this short document will provide enough of a road map to help orient the interested student as he or she sets out to explore this vast corpus of important Buddhist literature</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-15883809935288434622016-07-31T16:36:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:39:06.724+01:00dvandva<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
A<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvandva" target="_blank"><b>dvandva</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>द्वन्द्व<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dvandva</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>'pair') is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compound (linguistics)">linguistic compound</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in which multiple individual nouns are concatenated to form an agglomerated compound word in which the conjunction 'and' has been elided to form a new word with a distinct semantic field. So, for instance, the individual words 'brother' and 'sister' may be agglomerated to 'brothersister' to express "siblings". The grammatical number of such constructs is generally plural or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>. The term<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dvandva</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is borrowed from Sanskrit, a language in which these linguistic compounds are common. Dvandvas also exist in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avestan" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Avestan">Avestan</a>, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Iranian" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Old Iranian">Old Iranian</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>language related to Sanskrit, as well as in numerous<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Indo-Aryan" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Modern Indo-Aryan">Modern Indic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>languages descended from the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a>. Several far-eastern languages such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Korean language">Korean</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>also have<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dvandva</i>s.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dvandva</i>s may also be found occasionally in European languages, but are relatively rare.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
Examples include:</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; list-style-image: url("data:image/svg+xml,%3C%3Fxml%20version%3D%221.0%22%20encoding%3D%22UTF-8%22%3F%3E%0A%3Csvg%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%20version%3D%221.1%22%20width%3D%225%22%20height%3D%2213%22%3E%0A%3Ccircle%20cx%3D%222.5%22%20cy%3D%229.5%22%20r%3D%222.5%22%20fill%3D%22%2300528c%22%2F%3E%0A%3C%2Fsvg%3E%0A"); list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Sanskrit<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>mātāpitarau</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(मातापितरौ) for "parents" (lit. 'mother-father').</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Chinese<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>shānchuān</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Japanese<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>yamakawa</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(山川) for 'mountains and rivers'<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What does 'mountains and rivers' express? 'Valley'? 'Nature'? (February 2016)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Modern Greek μαχαιροπήρουνο<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/maçeɾoˈpiɾuno/</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>for "cutlery" (lit. 'fork-knife'), ανδρόγυνο<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/anˈðɾoʝino/</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>for "married couple" (lit. 'husband-wife').</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnic_languages" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Finnic languages">Finnic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>maa-ilma</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>("land-air") for "world".</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friulian_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Friulian language">Friulian</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>marimont</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>("sea-world") for "the entire world, the universe"</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
<i>Dvadva</i>s should not be confused with<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Agglutination">agglutination</a>, which also concatenates words but is a different process.</div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-70070566144341215702016-07-31T14:52:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:43:28.412+01:00Voice (grammar)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_%28grammar%29" target="_blank"><b>voice</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(also called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>diathesis</b>) of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_argument" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Verb argument">arguments</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(subject, object, etc.). When the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>active voice</b>. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>passive voice</b>.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
For example, in the sentence:</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>The cat ate the mouse.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The verb "ate" is in the active voice, but in the sentence:</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>The mouse was eaten by the cat.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The verbal phrase "was eaten" is passive.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>The hunter killed the bear.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The verb "killed" is in the active voice, and the doer of the action is the "hunter". To make this passive:</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>The bear was killed by the hunter.</i></dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The verbal phrase "was killed" is followed by the word "by" and then by the doer "hunter".</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transformational grammar">transformation</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>from an active-voice<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Clause">clause</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to an equivalent passive-voice construction, the subject and the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Object (grammar)">direct object</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>switch grammatical roles. The direct object gets<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>promoted</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to subject, and the subject<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>demoted</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to an (optional)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a>. In the examples above,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>the mouse</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>serves as the direct object in the active-voice version, but becomes the subject in the passive version. The subject of the active-voice version,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>the cat</i>, becomes part of a prepositional phrase in the passive version of the sentence, and could be left out entirely.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The passive voice is employed in a clause whose<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>expresses the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_role" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theta role">theme</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Patient (grammar)">patient</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the verb. That is, it undergoes an action or has its state changed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In the passive voice the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the doer) of the action denoted by the verb.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spanish language">Spanish language</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="English language">English language</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>use a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrasis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic</a></i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>passive voice; that is, it is not a single word form, but rather a construction making use of other word forms. Specifically, it is made up of a form of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verb</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>to be</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and a past<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participle" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Participle">participle</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the main verb. In other languages, such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Latin">Latin</a>, the passive voice is simply marked on the verb by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Inflection">inflection</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>librum legit</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>"He reads the book";<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>liber legitur</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>"The book is read".</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Some languages (such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fula language">Fula</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>) have a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>middle voice</b>. This is a set of inflections or constructions which is to some extent different from both the active and passive voices. The middle voice is said to be in the middle between the active and the passive voices because the subject often cannot be categorized as either agent or patient but may have elements of both. For example it may express what would be an<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intransitive_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verb</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in English. For example, in<i>The casserole cooked in the oven</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>cooked</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Syntax">syntactically</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>active but<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Semantics">semantically</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>passive. In Classical<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, the middle voice often has a reflexive sense: the subject acts on or for itself, such as "The boy washes himself", or "The boy washes". It can be transitive or intransitive. It can occasionally be used in a causative sense, such as "The father causes his son to be set free", or "The father ransoms his son".</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In English there is no longer a verb form for the middle voice, though some uses may be classified as middle voice, often resolved via a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive pronoun</a>, as in "Fred shaved", which may be expanded to "Fred shaved himself" – contrast with active "Fred shaved John" or passive "John was shaved by Fred". This need not be reflexive, as in "my clothes soaked in detergent overnight". English used to have a distinct form, called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passival" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Passival">passival</a>, which was displaced over the early 19th century by the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passive_progressive&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Passive progressive (page does not exist)">passive progressive</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progressive_passive&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Progressive passive (page does not exist)">progressive passive</a>), and is no longer used in English.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-vuolo_2-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-vuolo-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In the passival, one would say "the house is building", which is today instead "the house is being built"; likewise "the meal is eating", which is now "the meal is being eaten". Note that the similar "Fred is shaving" and "the clothes are soaking" remain grammatical. It is suggested that the progressive passive was popularized by the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_poets" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Romantic poets">Romantic poets</a>, and is connected with<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bristol">Bristol</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>usage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-vuolo_2-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-vuolo-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Many<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deponent_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Deponent verb">deponent verbs</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Latin">Latin</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>are survivals of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>middle voice.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic-prominent_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Topic-prominent language">Topic-prominent languages</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>like<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>tend not to employ the passive voice as frequently. Mandarin-speakers construct the passive voice by using the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb#Chinese" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Coverb">coverb</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>被 (<i>bèi</i>) and rearranging the usual word order.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>For example, this sentence using active voice:</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Note: the first line is in Traditional Chinese while the second is Simplified Chinese.</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><table cellspacing="10" style="font-size: 14px;"><tbody>
<tr><td>狗</td><td>咬了</td><td>這個</td><td>男人。</td></tr>
<tr><td>狗</td><td>咬了</td><td>这个</td><td>男人。</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Gǒu</i></td><td><i>yǎo-le</i></td><td><i>zhège</i></td><td><i>nánrén.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td>dog</td><td>bite-PERFECT</td><td>this</td><td>man</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4">"A dog has bitten this man."</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
corresponds to the following sentence using passive voice. Note that the agent phrase is optional.</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><table cellspacing="10" style="font-size: 14px;"><tbody>
<tr><td>這個</td><td>男人</td><td>被</td><td>(狗)</td><td>咬了。</td></tr>
<tr><td>这个</td><td>男人</td><td>被</td><td>(狗)</td><td>咬了。</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Zhège</i></td><td><i>nánrén</i></td><td><i>bèi</i></td><td>(<i>gǒu</i>)</td><td><i>yǎo-le.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td>This</td><td>man</td><td>BEI</td><td>dog</td><td>bite-PERFECT.</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="5">"This man was bitten (by a dog)."</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In addition, through the addition of the auxiliary verb "to be" (<i>shì</i>) the passive voice is frequently used to emphasise the identity of the actor. This example places emphasis on the<i>dog</i>, presumably as opposed to some other animal:</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><table cellspacing="10" style="font-size: 14px;"><tbody>
<tr><td>這個</td><td>男人</td><td>是</td><td>被</td><td>狗</td><td>咬了。</td></tr>
<tr><td>这个</td><td>男人</td><td>是</td><td>被</td><td>狗</td><td>咬了。</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Zhège</i></td><td><i>nánrén</i></td><td><i>shì</i></td><td><i>bèi</i></td><td><i>gǒu</i></td><td><i>yǎo-le.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td>This</td><td>man</td><td>to be</td><td>BEI</td><td>dog</td><td>bite-PERFECT.</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="6">"This man was bitten by a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dog</i>."</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Although a topic-prominent language,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>employs the passive voice quite frequently, and has two types of passive voice, one that corresponds to that in English and an indirect passive not found in English. This indirect passive is used when something undesirable happens to the speaker.</div>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><table cellspacing="10" style="font-size: 14px;"><tbody>
<tr><td>彼</td><td>は</td><td>泥棒</td><td>に</td><td>財布</td><td>を</td><td>盗まれた。</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Kare</i></td><td><i>wa</i></td><td><i>dorobō</i></td><td><i>ni</i></td><td><i>saifu</i></td><td><i>o</i></td><td><i>nusumareta.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td>He</td><td>TOPIC</td><td>thief</td><td>AGENT</td><td>wallet</td><td>OBJECT</td><td>steal-PASSIVE-PAST</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="7">"His wallet was stolen by a thief."</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><table cellspacing="10" style="font-size: 14px;"><tbody>
<tr><td>僕</td><td>は</td><td>彼女</td><td>に</td><td>嘘</td><td>を</td><td>つかれた。</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Boku</i></td><td><i>wa</i></td><td><i>kanojo</i></td><td><i>ni</i></td><td><i>uso</i></td><td><i>o</i></td><td><i>tsukareta.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td>I</td><td>TOPIC</td><td>her</td><td>AGENT</td><td>lie</td><td>OBJECT</td><td>tell-PASSIVE-PAST.</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="7">"I was lied to by her." (<i>or</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>"She lied to me.")</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-25736593472582116232016-07-31T12:20:00.000+01:002016-07-31T12:20:06.522+01:00Bhagavad Gita<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" target="_blank"><i><b>Bhagavad Gita</b></i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="sa">श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता</span>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="Unicode" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: normal;" title="Hindi transliteration"><i>Śrīmadbhagavadgītā</i></span>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><small>Sanskrit pronunciation: </small><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Sanskrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for Sanskrit">[ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːˈt̪aː]</a></span><small class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bhagavad_Gita_Pronunciation.ogg" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="File:Bhagavad Gita Pronunciation.ogg"><img alt="" data-file-height="500" data-file-width="500" height="13" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/13px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" style="border: none; margin: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="13" /></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="metadata"><a class="internal" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Bhagavad_Gita_Pronunciation.ogg" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhagavad Gita Pronunciation.ogg">listen</a></span>)</small>), literally meaning<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>The Song of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavan" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhagavan">Bhagavan</a></i>, often referred to as simply the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Gita</b>, is a 700-verse scripture that is part of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hindu">Hindu</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>epic<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>. It is a sacred text of the Hindus.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandava" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pandava">Pandava</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>prince<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arjuna" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Arjuna">Arjuna</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and his guide Lord<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>. Facing the duty to kill his relatives, Arjuna is "exhorted by his charioteer, Kṛiṣhṇa, among others, to stop hesitating and fulfill his<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3atriya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kṣatriya">Kṣatriya</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(warrior) duty as a warrior and kill."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200459_1-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200459-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Inserted<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200459_1-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200459-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in this appeal to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ksatriyadharma</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(heroism)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalinar200739_2-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalinar200739-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is "a dialogue [...] between diverging attitudes concerning and methods toward the attainment of liberation (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Moksha">moksha</a></i>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200460_3-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200460-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Bhagavad Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>presents a synthesis<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461_4-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000_5-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the Brahmanical concept of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461_4-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-4" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000_5-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992211_6-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992211-6" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>theistic<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhakti">bhakti</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-62_7-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-62-7" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaju1992211_6-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaju1992211-6" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yoga">yogic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ideals<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000_5-2" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Moksha">liberation</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000_5-3" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheepers2000-5" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>through<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jnana_yoga" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jnana yoga">jnana</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-62_7-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch200461-62-7" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>philosophy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EB-BG_8-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-EB-BG-8" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[web 1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-9" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[note 1]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Numerous commentaries have been written on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Bhagavad Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>with widely differing views on the essentials. Vedanta commentators read varying relations between Self and Brahman in the text:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>sees the non-dualism of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Brahman as its essence,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Deutsch_2004_page.3D97_10-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#cite_note-Deutsch_2004_page.3D97-10" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>whereas<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhedabheda" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>see Atman and Brahman as both different and non-different, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>sees them as different. The setting of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in a battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Bhagavad Gita</i><span style="padding-left: 0.1em;">'</span>s call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>including<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi</a>, who referred to the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>as his "spiritual dictionary"</div>
<br />
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Religious_Texts/Bhagavad_Gita">http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Religious_Texts/Bhagavad_Gita</a><br />
<br />
<hr style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; orphans: auto; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" />
<span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><img src="https://o.aolcdn.com/os/dmoz/img/dividerN.gif" style="border: 0px; float: left; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 2px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 1333px;" /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"></span><br />
<fieldset class="fieldcap" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border: 0px; color: black; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; margin: 10px 0px 0px; orphans: auto; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<ul class="directory-url" style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; list-style: disc outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0.1em 0px 9px 3.3em; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-color: #e4e4e4; border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/index.htm" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">The Bhagavad Gita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- E-text of the Bhagavad Gita, and the Sanatsugatiya and Anugita. A translation from the 19th century.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fhin%2Fsbe08%2Findex.htm" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.gitaaonline.com/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Bhagavad Gita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Features audio and video clips, links, discourses, practical examples and humorous anecdotes.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gitaaonline.com%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://srimadbhagavadgita.net/bhagavad-gita-online" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Bhagavad Gita - conversation with God</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- God's conversation with man on the way to true eternal happiness.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fsrimadbhagavadgita.net%2Fbhagavad-gita-online" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.asitis.com/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Bhagavad Gita As It Is</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Edition by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada with transliteration and meaning of the Sanskrit verses.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asitis.com%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.bhagavad-gita.us/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">The Bhagavad Gita: The Divine Song of God</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Read the entire Bhagavad Gita online and hear the original sanskrit verses sung in traditional melodies. Audio files in MP3 format.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bhagavad-gita.us%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Bhagavad-Gita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Text and audio recitations in many languages, along with a description of the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya sampradaya and avataras of Krishna.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bhagavad-gita.org%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://members.tripod.com/bhagvadgita/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Bhagvad Gita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Information about the Hindu scripture called Bhagvad Gita.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmembers.tripod.com%2Fbhagvadgita%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.geetasaar.com/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Geeta Saar</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- A translation of the scripture.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geetasaar.com%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.thegitaspace.com/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">The Gita Space</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Verses and teachings of Gita. Includes comments by various acharyas and a list of books.<div class="flag" style="border: 0px; float: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 16px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 16px;">
<a href="http://www.dmoz.org/public/flag?cat=Society%2FReligion_and_Spirituality%2FHinduism%2FReligious_Texts%2FBhagavad_Gita&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegitaspace.com%2F" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;"><img alt="[!]" src="https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag.png" style="background: url(https://www.dmoz.org/img/flag-faint.png); border: none; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 8px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 0px;" title="report an issue with this listing" /></a></div>
</li>
<li style="border: 0px; clear: right; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px; padding: 2px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="listinglink" href="http://www.hindunet.org/gita/" style="color: #660066; font-size: 1.14em;">Shree Bhagwad Gita</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>- Articles about the Hindu text Bhagwad Gita ("Song of the Lord"), written circa 3000 B.C.</li>
</ul>
</fieldset>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-35399689073466536702016-07-31T12:05:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:45:39.488+01:00Dhammapada<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada" target="_blank"><i><b>Dhammapada</b></i></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pāli">Pāli</a>;<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakrit_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Prakrit language">Prakrit</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="pr">धम्मपद</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dhammapada</i>;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="sa">धर्मपद</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dharmapada</i>) is a collection of sayings of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gautama">the Buddha</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in verse form and one of the most widely read and best known<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_texts" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhist texts">scriptures</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-best-known_text_2-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-best-known_text-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The original version of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dhammapada</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuddaka_Nikaya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Khuddaka Nikaya">Khuddaka Nikaya</a>, a division of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_Canon" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theravada">Theravada</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Buddhism.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The Buddhist scholar and commentator<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhaghosa" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>explains that each saying recorded in the collection was made on a different occasion in response to a unique situation that had arisen in the life of the Buddha and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangha" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sangha">his monastic community</a>. His commentary, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Dhammapada Atthakatha</i>, presents the details of these events and is a rich source of legend for the life and times of the Buddha.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-3" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
According to tradition, the Dhammapada's verses were spoken by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gautama Buddha">the Buddha</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>on various occasions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-8" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>"By distilling the complex models, theories, rhetorical style and sheer volume of the Buddha's teachings into concise, crystalline verses, the Dhammapada makes the Buddhist way of life available to anyone...In fact, it is possible that the very source of the Dhammapada in the third century B.C.E. is traceable to the need of the early Buddhist communities in India to laicize the ascetic impetus of the Buddha's original words."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-9" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The text is part of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuddaka_Nikaya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Khuddaka Nikaya">Khuddaka Nikaya</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a>, although over half of the verses exist in other parts of the Pali Canon.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-10" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>A 4th or 5th century CE<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atthakatha" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atthakatha">commentary</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>attributed to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhaghosa" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>includes 305 stories which give context to the verses.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Although the Pāli edition is the best-known, a number of other versions are known:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Norman_papers_11-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-Norman_papers-11" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Dharmapada</b>" – a version possibly of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kāśyapīya">Kāśyapīya</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>origin<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-12" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Gāndhārī written in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharosthi" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a>script<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-13" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patna" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Patna">Patna</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Dharmapada</b>" – a version in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-14" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>most likely<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammatiya" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sammatiya">Sammatiya</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-15" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udanavarga" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Udanavarga">Udānavarga</a></b>" – a seemingly related Mula-Sarvastivada or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvastivada" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>text<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-16" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-17" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in<ul style="line-height: 1.6; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">3<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>versions</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">a Tibetan translation,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-18" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>which is popular in traditional Tibetan Buddhism</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></b>" – a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokottaravada" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lokottaravada">Lokottaravada</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>text with parallels to verses in the Pāli Dhammapada's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Sahassa Vagga</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Bhikkhu Vagga</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-19" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<b>Fajiu jing</b>" – 4 Chinese works; one of these appears to be an expanded translation of the Pali version; this has not traditionally been very popular.</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Comparing the Pali Dhammapada, the Gandhari Dharmapada and the Udanavarga, Brough (2001) identifies that the texts have in common 330 to 340 verses, 16 chapter headings and an underlying structure. He suggests that the three texts have a "common ancestor" but underlines that there is no evidence that any one of these three texts might have been the "primitive Dharmapada" from which the other two evolved.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-20" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.399999618530273px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The Dhammapada is considered one of the most popular pieces of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theravada">Theravada</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_literature" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pali literature">literature</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-best-known_text_2-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-best-known_text-2" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>A<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textual_criticism" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Textual criticism">critical edition</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the Dhammapada was produced by Danish scholar Viggo Fausbøll in 1855, becoming the first Pali text to receive this kind of examination by the European academic community.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-hinuber_2_21-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhammapada#cite_note-hinuber_2-21" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup></div>
<hr />
<br />
<h2>
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/lesson_pali3.htm" target="_blank">Readings in Pali</a></h2>
<br />
<div align="center" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b><span style="color: #666600; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">3. Readings in Pali Texts</span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="10" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; widows: auto; width: 100%px; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Vandana</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda1.htm">Gatha 1 - namaskara (namaskaara)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda2.htm">Gatha 2 - tisarana (tisara.na)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda3.htm">Gatha 3 - buddhaguna (buddhagu.na)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda4.htm">Gatha 4 - dhammaguna (dhammagu.na)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda5.htm">Gatha 5 - sanghaguna (sa^nghagu.na)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/vanda6.htm">Gatha 6 - blessing</a></span></td></tr>
<tr class="wording" style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;" valign="top"><td><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Dhammapada<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span></b><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="10" style="width: 100%px;"><tbody>
<tr class="wording" style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;" valign="top"><td><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 1:<br />
<b>The Pairs</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/gatha1.htm">Dhammapada 1</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/gatha2.htm">Dhammapada 2</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/gatha3.htm">Dhammapada 3</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson//pali/reading/gatha4.htm">Dhammapada 4</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/gatha5.htm">Dhammapada 5</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/lesson/pali/reading/gatha6.htm">Dhammapada 6</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha7.htm">Dhammapada 7</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha8.htm">Dhammapada 8</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha9.htm">Dhammapada 9</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha10.htm">Dhammapada 10</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha11.htm">Dhammapada 11</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha12.htm">Dhammapada 12</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha13.htm">Dhammapada 13</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha14.htm">Dhammapada 14</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha15.htm">Dhammapada 15</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha16.htm">Dhammapada 16</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha17.htm">Dhammapada 17</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha18.htm">Dhammapada 18</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha19.htm">Dhammapada 19</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha20.htm">Dhammapada 20</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 2:<br />
<b>Conscientiousness</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha21.htm">Dhammapada 21</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha22.htm">Dhammapada 22</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha23.htm">Dhammapada 23</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha24.htm">Dhammapada 24</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha25.htm">Dhammapada 25</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha26.htm">Dhammapada 26</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha27.htm">Dhammapada 27</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha28.htm">Dhammapada 28</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha29.htm">Dhammapada 29</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha30.htm">Dhammapada 30</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha31.htm">Dhammapada 31</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha32.htm">Dhammapada 32</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 3:<br />
<b>The Mind</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha33.htm">Dhammapada 33</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha34.htm">Dhammapada 34</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha35.htm">Dhammapada 35</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha36.htm">Dhammapada 36</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha37.htm">Dhammapada 37</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha38.htm">Dhammapada 38</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha39.htm">Dhammapada 39</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha40.htm">Dhammapada 40</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha41.htm">Dhammapada 41</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha42.htm">Dhammapada 42</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha43.htm">Dhammapada 43</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 4:<br />
<b>The Flower</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha44.htm">Dhammapada 44</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha45.htm">Dhammapada 45</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha46.htm">Dhammapada 46</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha47.htm">Dhammapada 47</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha48.htm">Dhammapada 48</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha49.htm">Dhammapada 49</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha50.htm">Dhammapada 50</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha51.htm">Dhammapada 51</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha52.htm">Dhammapada 52</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha53.htm">Dhammapada 53</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha54.htm">Dhammapada 54</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha55.htm">Dhammapada 55</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha56.htm">Dhammapada 56</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha57.htm">Dhammapada 57</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha58.htm">Dhammapada 58</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha59.htm">Dhammapada 59</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 5:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Fool</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha60.htm">Dhammapada 60</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha61.htm">Dhammapada 61</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha62.htm">Dhammapada 62</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha63.htm">Dhammapada 63</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha64.htm">Dhammapada 64</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha65.htm">Dhammapada 65</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha66.htm">Dhammapada 66</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha67.htm">Dhammapada 67</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha68.htm">Dhammapada 68</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha69.htm">Dhammapada 69</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha70.htm">Dhammapada 70</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha71.htm">Dhammapada 71</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha72.htm">Dhammapada 72</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha73.htm">Dhammapada 73</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha74.htm">Dhammapada 74</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha75.htm">Dhammapada 75</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 6:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Wise</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha76.htm">Dhammapada 76</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha77.htm">Dhammapada 77</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha78.htm">Dhammapada 78</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha79.htm">Dhammapada 79</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha80.htm">Dhammapada 80</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha81.htm">Dhammapada 81</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha82.htm">Dhammapada 82</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha83.htm">Dhammapada 83</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha84.htm">Dhammapada 84</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha85.htm">Dhammapada 85</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha86.htm">Dhammapada 86</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha87.htm">Dhammapada 87</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha88.htm">Dhammapada 88</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha89.htm">Dhammapada 89</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 7:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Arahant</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha90.htm">Dhammapada 90</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha91.htm">Dhammapada 91</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha92.htm">Dhammapada 92</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha93.htm">Dhammapada 93</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha94.htm">Dhammapada 94</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha95.htm">Dhammapada 95</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha96.htm">Dhammapada 96</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha97.htm">Dhammapada 97</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha98.htm">Dhammapada 98</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha99.htm">Dhammapada 99</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 8:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Thousand</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha100.htm">Dhammapada 100</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha101.htm">Dhammapada 101</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha102.htm">Dhammapada 102</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha103.htm">Dhammapada 103</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha104.htm">Dhammapada 104</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha105.htm">Dhammapada 105</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha106.htm">Dhammapada 106</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha107.htm">Dhammapada 107</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha108.htm">Dhammapada 108</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha109.htm">Dhammapada 109</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha110.htm">Dhammapada 110</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha111.htm">Dhammapada 111</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha112.htm">Dhammapada 112</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha113.htm">Dhammapada 113</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha114.htm">Dhammapada 114</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha115.htm">Dhammapada 115</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 9:<br />
<b>The Evil</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha116.htm">Dhammapada 116</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha117.htm">Dhammapada 117</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha118.htm">Dhammapada 118</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha119.htm">Dhammapada 119</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha120.htm">Dhammapada 120</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha121.htm">Dhammapada 121</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha122.htm">Dhammapada 122</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha123.htm">Dhammapada 123</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha124.htm">Dhammapada 124</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha125.htm">Dhammapada 125</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha126.htm">Dhammapada 126</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha127.htm">Dhammapada 127</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha128.htm">Dhammapada 128</a></span></li>
</td><td><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 11:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Old Age</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha146.htm">Dhammapada 146</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha147.htm">Dhammapada 147</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha148.htm">Dhammapada 148</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha149.htm">Dhammapada 149</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha150.htm">Dhammapada 150</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha151.htm">Dhammapada 151</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha152.htm">Dhammapada 152</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha153.htm">Dhammapada 153</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha154.htm">Dhammapada 154</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha155.htm">Dhammapada 155</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha156.htm">Dhammapada 156</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 12:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Self</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha157.htm">Dhammapada 157</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha158.htm">Dhammapada 158</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha159.htm">Dhammapada 159</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha160.htm">Dhammapada 160</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha161.htm">Dhammapada 161</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha162.htm">Dhammapada 162</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha163.htm">Dhammapada 163</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha164.htm">Dhammapada 164</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha165.htm">Dhammapada 165</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha166.htm">Dhammapada 166</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 13:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The World</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha167.htm">Dhammapada 167</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha168.htm">Dhammapada 168</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha169.htm">Dhammapada 169</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha170.htm">Dhammapada 170</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha171.htm">Dhammapada 171</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha172.htm">Dhammapada 172</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha173.htm">Dhammapada 173</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha174.htm">Dhammapada 174</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha175.htm">Dhammapada 175</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha176.htm">Dhammapada 176</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha177.htm">Dhammapada 177</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha178.htm">Dhammapada 178</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 14:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Buddha</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha179.htm">Dhammapada 179</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha180.htm">Dhammapada 180</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha181.htm">Dhammapada 181</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha182.htm">Dhammapada 182</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha183.htm">Dhammapada 183</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha184.htm">Dhammapada 184</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha185.htm">Dhammapada 185</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha186.htm">Dhammapada 186</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha187.htm">Dhammapada 187</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha188.htm">Dhammapada 188</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha189.htm">Dhammapada 189</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha190.htm">Dhammapada 190</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha191.htm">Dhammapada 191</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha192.htm">Dhammapada 192</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha193.htm">Dhammapada 193</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha194.htm">Dhammapada 194</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha195.htm">Dhammapada 195</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha196.htm">Dhammapada 196</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 15:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Happiness</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha197.htm">Dhammapada 197</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha198.htm">Dhammapada 198</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha199.htm">Dhammapada 199</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha200.htm">Dhammapada 200</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha201.htm">Dhammapada 201</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha202.htm">Dhammapada 202</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha203.htm">Dhammapada 203</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha204.htm">Dhammapada 204</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha205.htm">Dhammapada 205</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha206.htm">Dhammapada 206</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha207.htm">Dhammapada 207</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha208.htm">Dhammapada 208</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 16:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>Affection</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha209.htm">Dhammapada 209</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha210.htm">Dhammapada 210</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha211.htm">Dhammapada 211</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha212.htm">Dhammapada 212</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha213.htm">Dhammapada 213</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha214.htm">Dhammapada 214</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha215.htm">Dhammapada 215</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha216.htm">Dhammapada 216</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha217.htm">Dhammapada 217</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha218.htm">Dhammapada 218</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha219.htm">Dhammapada 219</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha220.htm">Dhammapada 220</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha221.htm">Dhammapada 221</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 17:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>Anger</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha222.htm">Dhammapada 222</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha223.htm">Dhammapada 223</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha224.htm">Dhammapada 224</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha225.htm">Dhammapada 225</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha226.htm">Dhammapada 226</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha227.htm">Dhammapada 227</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha228.htm">Dhammapada 228</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha229.htm">Dhammapada 229</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha230.htm">Dhammapada 230</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha231.htm">Dhammapada 231</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha232.htm">Dhammapada 232</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha233.htm">Dhammapada 233</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha234.htm">Dhammapada 234</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 18:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>Taint</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha235.htm">Dhammapada 235</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha236.htm">Dhammapada 236</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha237.htm">Dhammapada 237</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha238.htm">Dhammapada 238</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha239.htm">Dhammapada 239</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha240.htm">Dhammapada 240</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha241.htm">Dhammapada 241</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha242.htm">Dhammapada 242</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha243.htm">Dhammapada 243</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha244.htm">Dhammapada 244</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha245.htm">Dhammapada 245</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha246.htm">Dhammapada 246</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha247.htm">Dhammapada 247</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha248.htm">Dhammapada 248</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha249.htm">Dhammapada 249</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha250.htm">Dhammapada 250</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha251.htm">Dhammapada 251</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha252.htm">Dhammapada 252</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha253.htm">Dhammapada 253</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha254.htm">Dhammapada 254</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha255.htm">Dhammapada 255</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 19:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Righteous</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha256.htm">Dhammapada 256</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha257.htm">Dhammapada 257</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha258.htm">Dhammapada 258</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha259.htm">Dhammapada 259</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha260.htm">Dhammapada 260</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha261.htm">Dhammapada 261</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha262.htm">Dhammapada 262</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha263.htm">Dhammapada 263</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha264.htm">Dhammapada 264</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha265.htm">Dhammapada 265</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha266.htm">Dhammapada 266</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha267.htm">Dhammapada 267</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha268.htm">Dhammapada 268</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha269.htm">Dhammapada 269</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha270.htm">Dhammapada 270</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha271.htm">Dhammapada 271</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha272.htm">Dhammapada 272</a></span></li>
</td><td><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 20:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Path</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha273.htm">Dhammapada 273</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha274.htm">Dhammapada 274</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha275.htm">Dhammapada 275</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha276.htm">Dhammapada 276</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha277.htm">Dhammapada 277</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha278.htm">Dhammapada 278</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha279.htm">Dhammapada 279</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha280.htm">Dhammapada 280</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha281.htm">Dhammapada 281</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha282.htm">Dhammapada 282</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha283.htm">Dhammapada 283</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha284.htm">Dhammapada 284</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha285.htm">Dhammapada 285</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha286.htm">Dhammapada 286</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha287.htm">Dhammapada 287</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha288.htm">Dhammapada 288</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha289.htm">Dhammapada 289</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 21:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>Miscellaneous</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha290.htm">Dhammapada 290</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha291.htm">Dhammapada 291</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha292.htm">Dhammapada 292</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha293.htm">Dhammapada 293</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha294.htm">Dhammapada 294</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha295.htm">Dhammapada 295</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha296.htm">Dhammapada 296</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha297.htm">Dhammapada 297</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha298.htm">Dhammapada 298</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha299.htm">Dhammapada 299</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha300.htm">Dhammapada 300</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha301.htm">Dhammapada 301</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha302.htm">Dhammapada 302</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha303.htm">Dhammapada 303</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha304.htm">Dhammapada 304</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha305.htm">Dhammapada 305</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 22:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Hell</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha306.htm">Dhammapada 306</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha307.htm">Dhammapada 307</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha308.htm">Dhammapada 308</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha309.htm">Dhammapada 309</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha310.htm">Dhammapada 310</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha311.htm">Dhammapada 311</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha312.htm">Dhammapada 312</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha313.htm">Dhammapada 313</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha314.htm">Dhammapada 314</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha315.htm">Dhammapada 315</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha316.htm">Dhammapada 316</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha317.htm">Dhammapada 317</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha318.htm">Dhammapada 318</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha319.htm">Dhammapada 319</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 23:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Elephant</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha320.htm">Dhammapada 320</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha321.htm">Dhammapada 321</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha322.htm">Dhammapada 322</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha323.htm">Dhammapada 323</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha324.htm">Dhammapada 324</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha325.htm">Dhammapada 325</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha326.htm">Dhammapada 326</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha327.htm">Dhammapada 327</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha328.htm">Dhammapada 328</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha329.htm">Dhammapada 329</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha330.htm">Dhammapada 330</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha331.htm">Dhammapada 331</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha332.htm">Dhammapada 332</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha333.htm">Dhammapada 333</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 24:<br />
<b>The Thirst</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha334.htm">Dhammapada 334</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha335.htm">Dhammapada 335</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha336.htm">Dhammapada 336</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha337.htm">Dhammapada 337</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha338.htm">Dhammapada 338</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha339.htm">Dhammapada 339</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha340.htm">Dhammapada 340</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha341.htm">Dhammapada 341</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha342.htm">Dhammapada 342</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha343.htm">Dhammapada 343</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha344.htm">Dhammapada 344</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha345.htm">Dhammapada 345</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha346.htm">Dhammapada 346</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha347.htm">Dhammapada 347</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha348.htm">Dhammapada 348</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha349.htm">Dhammapada 349</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha350.htm">Dhammapada 350</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha351.htm">Dhammapada 351</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha352.htm">Dhammapada 352</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha353.htm">Dhammapada 353</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha354.htm">Dhammapada 354</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha355.htm">Dhammapada 355</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha356.htm">Dhammapada 356</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha357.htm">Dhammapada 357</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha358.htm">Dhammapada 358</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha359.htm">Dhammapada 359</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 25:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Monk</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha360.htm">Dhammapada 360</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha361.htm">Dhammapada 361</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha362.htm">Dhammapada 362</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha363.htm">Dhammapada 363</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha364.htm">Dhammapada 364</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha365.htm">Dhammapada 365</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha366.htm">Dhammapada 366</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha367.htm">Dhammapada 367</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha368.htm">Dhammapada 368</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha369.htm">Dhammapada 369</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha370.htm">Dhammapada 370</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha371.htm">Dhammapada 371</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha372.htm">Dhammapada 372</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha373.htm">Dhammapada 373</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha374.htm">Dhammapada 374</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha375.htm">Dhammapada 375</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha376.htm">Dhammapada 376</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha377.htm">Dhammapada 377</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha378.htm">Dhammapada 378</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha379.htm">Dhammapada 379</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha380.htm">Dhammapada 380</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha381.htm">Dhammapada 381</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha382.htm">Dhammapada 382</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Chapter 26:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<b>The Brahmin</b></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha383.htm">Dhammapada 383</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha384.htm">Dhammapada 384</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha385.htm">Dhammapada 385</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha386.htm">Dhammapada 386</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha387.htm">Dhammapada 387</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha388.htm">Dhammapada 388</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha389.htm">Dhammapada 389</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha390.htm">Dhammapada 390</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha391.htm">Dhammapada 391</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha392.htm">Dhammapada 392</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha393.htm">Dhammapada 393</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha394.htm">Dhammapada 394</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha395.htm">Dhammapada 395</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha396.htm">Dhammapada 396</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha397.htm">Dhammapada 397</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha398.htm">Dhammapada 398</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha399.htm">Dhammapada 399</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha400.htm">Dhammapada 400</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha401.htm">Dhammapada 401</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha402.htm">Dhammapada 402</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha403.htm">Dhammapada 403</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha404.htm">Dhammapada 404</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha405.htm">Dhammapada 405</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha406.htm">Dhammapada 406</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha407.htm">Dhammapada 407</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha408.htm">Dhammapada 408</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha409.htm">Dhammapada 409</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha410.htm">Dhammapada 410</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha411.htm">Dhammapada 411</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha412.htm">Dhammapada 412</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha413.htm">Dhammapada 413</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha414.htm">Dhammapada 414</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha415.htm">Dhammapada 415</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha416.htm">Dhammapada 416</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha417.htm">Dhammapada 417</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha418.htm">Dhammapada 418</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha419.htm">Dhammapada 419</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha420.htm">Dhammapada 420</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha421.htm">Dhammapada 421</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha422.htm">Dhammapada 422</a></span></li>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<li><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/reading/gatha423.htm">Dhammapada 423</a></span></li>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr><td class="wording" style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Selected Pali Texts</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-aditta.htm">1. aaditta-pariyaaya-sutta (sa.myutta-nikaaya, sabbaka-vagga, sa.laayatana-sa.myutta, 28)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-anatta.htm">2. anattaa-lakkha.na-sutta (sa.myutta-nikaaya, khandha-vagga, khandha-sa.myutta, 59)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-cakka.htm">3. dhamma-cakka-ppavattana-sutta (sa.myutta-nikaaya, mahaa-vagga, sacca-sa.myutta, 11)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-dhaniy.htm">4. dhaniya-sutta (sutta-nipaata, uraga-vagga, 2)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-kalama.htm">5. kaalaama-sutta (a^nguttara-nikaaya, tika-nipaata, mahaa-vagga, 65)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-khagga.htm">6. khagga-visaa.na-sutta (sutta-nipaata, uraga-vagga, 3)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-metta.htm">7. kara.niiya-mettaa-sutta (khuddaka-nikaaya, khuddaka-paa.tha, 9)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-pari01.htm">8. mahaa-parinibbaa.na-sutta (diigha-nikaaya)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a><br />
<a href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/BDLM/en/lesson/pali/p-texts/p-uraga.htm">9. uraga-sutta (sutta-nipaata, uraga-vagga, 1)</a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-53809913005270036952016-07-31T05:44:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:46:57.865+01:00Aorist<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist" target="_blank"><b>Aorist</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<span class="nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/eɪ/ long 'a' in 'base'">eɪ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/./ syllable break">.</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ər/ 'er' in 'finger'">ər</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ɨ/ 'e' in 'roses'">ɨ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></a></span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span></span>;<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviations" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of glossing abbreviations">abbreviated</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="smallcaps"><span class="SMALLCAPS" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="NOCAPS" style="text-transform: lowercase;">aor</span></span></span>) is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammar">grammatical</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>term used to denote particular<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Verb">verb</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>forms in certain languages. It is used particularly with regard to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>, and to certain other<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, as well as languages influenced by the Indo-European tradition, such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>. In these languages the aorist is usually a form that expresses<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and often refers to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Past tense">past</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>events. It is thus comparable in meaning to what is called the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Preterite">preterite</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in grammars of some languages.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The word comes from Ancient Greek<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ahóristos</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>"indefinite",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>as the aorist was the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Markedness">unmarked</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(default) form of the verb, and thus did not have the implications of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective aspect</a>, which referred to an ongoing or repeated situation, or the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a>, which referred to a situation with a continuing relevance; instead it described an action "pure and simple".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Beetham362_2-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-Beetham362-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Because the aorist was the unmarked aspect in Ancient Greek, the term is sometimes applied to unmarked verb forms in other languages, such as the habitual aspect in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a>, the aorist appears to have originated as a series of verb forms expressing<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lexical aspect">manner of action</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MM_4-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-MM-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Proto-Indo-European had a three-way aspectual opposition, traditionally called "present", "aorist", and "perfect", which are thought to have been, respectively,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stative verb">stative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(resultant state) aspects. By the time of Classical Greek, this system was maintained largely in independent instances of the non-indicative moods and in the nonfinite forms. But in the indicative, and in dependent clauses with the subjunctive and optative, the aspects took on temporal significance. In this manner, the aorist was often used as an unmarked past tense, and the perfect came to develop a resultative use,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>which is why the term<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is used for this meaning in modern languages.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Other Indo-European languages lost the aorist entirely. In the development of Latin, for example, the aorist merged with the perfect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Preterite">preterites</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(past perfectives) of the Romance languages, which are sometimes called 'aorist', are an independent development.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicative_mood" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indicative mood">indicative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>aorist is one of the two main forms used in telling a story; it is used for undivided events, such as the individual steps in a continuous process (narrative aorist); it is also used for events that took place before the story itself (past-within-past). The aorist indicative is also used to express things that happen in general, without asserting a time (the "gnomic aorist"). It can also be used of present and future<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>events; the aorist also has several specialized senses meaning present action.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Non-indicative forms of the aorist (subjunctives, optatives, imperatives, infinitives) are usually purely aspectual, with certain exceptions including<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_speech" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indirect speech">indirect speech</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>constructions and the use of optative as part of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_of_tenses#Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sequence of tenses">sequence of tenses</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in dependent clauses. There are aorist infinitives and imperatives that do not imply temporality at all. For example, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Matthew 6:11 uses the aorist imperative in "<b>Give</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(δός<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dós</i>) us<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>this day</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>our daily bread",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in contrast to the analogous passage in Luke 11:3, which uses the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfective" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfective">imperfective</a>aspect, implying repetition, with "<b>Give</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(δίδου<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>dídou</i>, present imperative) us<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>day by day</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>our daily bread."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
An example of how the aorist tense contrasts with the imperfect in describing the past occurs in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>'s<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabasis_(Xenophon)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Anabasis (Xenophon)">Anabasis</a></i>, when the Persian aristocrat Orontas is executed: "and those who<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>had been previously in the habit of bowing</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(προσεκύνουν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>prosekúnoun</i>, imperfect) to him,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>bowed</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(προσεκύνησαν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>prosekúnēsan</i>, aorist) to him even then."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Here the imperfect refers to a past habitual or repeated act, and the aorist to a single one.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
There is disagreement as to which functions of the Greek aorist are inherent within it. Some of the disagreement applies to the history of the development of the various functions and forms. Most grammarians differentiate the aorist indicative from the non-indicative aorists. Many authors hold that the aorist tends to be about the past because it is perfective, and perfectives tend to describe completed actions;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>others that the aorist indicative and to some extent the participle is essentially a mixture of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_past" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfective past">past tense and perfective aspect</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup></div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Hermeneutic_implications">Hermeneutic implications</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Because the aorist was not maintained in either Latin or the Germanic languages, there have long been difficulties in translating the Greek<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="New Testament">New Testament</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>into Western languages. The aorist has often been interpreted as making a strong statement about the aspect or even the time of an event, when, in fact, due to its being the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Markedness">unmarked</a>(default) form of the Greek verb, such implications are often left to context. Thus, within New Testament<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, it is considered an<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exegesis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Exegesis">exegetical</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to attach undue significance to uses of the aorist.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ExFal_13-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-ExFal-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Although one may draw specific implications from an author's use of the imperfective or perfect, no such conclusions can, in general, be drawn from the use of the aorist, which may refer to an action "without specifying whether the action is unique, repeated, ingressive, instantaneous, past, or accomplished."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ExFal_13-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-ExFal-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In particular, the aorist does not imply a "once for all" action, as it has commonly been misinterpreted, although it frequently refers to a simple, non-repeated action.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GRO_14-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-GRO-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup></div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; orphans: auto; padding-left: 1.6em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Main article:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs#Aorist_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sanskrit verbs">Sanskrit verbs#Aorist system</a></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Although quite common in older Sanskrit, the aorist is comparatively infrequent in much of classical Sanskrit, occurring, for example, 66 times in the first book of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ramayana">Rāmāyaṇa</a>, 8 times in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitopadesha" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hitopadesha">Hitopadeśa</a>, 6 times in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad-Gītā</a>, and 6 times in the story of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakuntala" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shakuntala">Śakuntalā</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Whitney11_15-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-Whitney11-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In the later language, the aorist indicative had the value of a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Preterite">preterite</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="line-height: 1; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>while in the older language it was closer in sense to the perfect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Whitney11_15-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist#cite_note-Whitney11-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The aorist was also used with the ancient<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injunctive_mood" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Injunctive mood">injunctive mood</a>, particularly in prohibitions</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<hr />
<br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">In the grammar of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">, including<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">, the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_%28Ancient_Greek%29" target="_blank"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></a></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_%28Ancient_Greek%29" target="_blank"><b style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">aorist</b></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(pronounced<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="nowrap" style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/eɪ/ long 'a' in 'base'">eɪ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/./ syllable break">.</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ər/ 'er' in 'finger'">ər</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ɨ/ 'e' in 'roses'">ɨ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></a></span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="nowrap" style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ˈ/ primary stress follows">ˈ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ɛər/ 'are' in 'bare'">ɛər</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="/ɨ/ 'e' in 'roses'">ɨ</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></a></span><span class="IPA nopopups"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Key" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English"><span style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px;" title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></a></span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none !important;" title="Help:IPA for English">/</a></span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">) is a class of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Verb">verb</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>forms that generally portray a situation as simple or undivided, that is, as having<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspect" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">. In the grammatical terminology of classical Greek, it is a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">tense</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">, one of the seven divisions of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugation</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of a verb, found in all<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Voice (grammar)"> voices</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; display: inline; float: none; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">.</span><br />
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In traditional grammatical terminology, the aorist is a "tense", a section of the verb paradigm formed with the same<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_stem" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Word stem">stem</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>across all<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a>. By contrast, in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>refers to a form that specifies a point in time (past, present, or future).</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The literary Greek of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries BC,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>, was the standard school-room form of Greek for centuries. This article therefore chiefly describes the Attic aorist, describing the variants at other times and in other dialects as needed. The poems of Homer were studied in Athens, and may have been compiled there; they are in Epic or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric Greek</a>, an artificial blend of several dialects, not including Attic. The Homeric aorist differs in morphology from Attic, but the educated Athenians imitated Homeric syntax.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Conversely, Hellenistic or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>was a blend of several dialects after the conquests of Alexander; most of the written texts that survive in Koine imitate the Attic taught in schools to a greater or lesser extent, but the spoken language of the writers appears to have simplified and regularized the formation of the aorist, and some of the features of Attic syntax are much less frequently attested.</div>
<h2 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: 'Linux Libertine', Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 1.5em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Morphology">Morphology</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h2>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
A verb may have either a first aorist or a second aorist: the distinction is like that between<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germanic weak verb">weak</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<i>try</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>tried</i>) and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verbs</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<i>write</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>wrote</i>) in English. A very few verbs have both types of aorist, sometimes with a distinction of meaning: for example ἵστημι (to set up or cause to stand) has both ἕστησα and ἕστην as aorists, but the first has a transitive meaning ("I set up") and the second an intransitive meaning ("I stood").</div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="First">First</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_stem" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Word stem">stem</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>first aorist</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is marked by -σα- in the active and middle voice,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-first_aorist_smyth_1-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-first_aorist_smyth-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and -θη- in the passive voice.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Because of the σ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sigma">sigma</a>), it is also called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>sigmatic aorist</b>.</div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Compensatory_lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compensatory lengthening">Compensatory lengthening</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>affects first aorist forms whose verbal root ends in a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonorant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_stop" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nasal stop">nasal</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Liquid consonant">liquid</a>: ν, μ, ρ, λ).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-first_aorist_smyth_1-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-first_aorist_smyth-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic Greek</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(also in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a>, with some differences), the σ in the first aorist suffix causes<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the vowel before the sonorant, producing a long vowel (α → η or ᾱ, ε → ει, ι → ῑ, ο → ου, υ → ῡ).</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic Greek</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(which contributes some forms to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a>), the σ causes compensatory lengthening of the sonorant instead of the vowel, producing a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemination" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gemination">double</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>consonant (ν → νν, λ → λλ).</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The present stem sometimes undergoes sound changes caused by a suffix — for instance,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Palatal approximant">-ι̯-</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="IPA" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, English consonantal<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Y">y</a>). In this case, the aorist is formed from the verbal root without the present-stem sound changes.</div>
<table class="wikitable polytonic" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 1em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">present</th><th colspan="3" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">aorist</th><th rowspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">meaning</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">original form</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Attic</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">original form</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Attic</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Aeolic</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">μέν-ω<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">μεν-σα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔ-μεινα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">*ἔ-μεννα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">stay, wait for</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">στέλ-ι̯ω</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">στέλλω<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">στελ-σα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔ-στειλα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔ-στελλα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">prepare, send</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">φάν-ι̯ω</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">φαίνω<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">φαν-σα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔ-φηνα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">*ἔ-φαννα</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">show</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kiparsky" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Paul Kiparsky">Kiparsky</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>analyzes the process as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuccalization" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Debuccalization">debuccalization</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>s</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(σ) to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>h</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>h</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and the sonorant so that<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>h</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>comes before the sonorant, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>h</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to the vowel (Attic-Ionic-Doric) or to the consonant (Aeolic).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>men-sa</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>→<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>men-ha</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(debuccalization) →<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>mehna</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(metathesis) →<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>mēna</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>menna</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(compensatory lengthening)</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="First_aorist_endings">First aorist endings</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Most of the active and middle forms of the first aorist are similar to the forms of the present and imperfect, except with an α in the endings instead of an ο or ε. The first person singular indicative active, second person singular imperfect middle, the second person singular imperatives, active infinitive, and masculine nominative singular of the participle (bolded), however, differ, and the subjunctive active and middle of the first aorist have endings identical to the present ones.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Most of the passive forms of the first aorist have endings similar to those of the root aorist.</div>
<table class="wikitable polytonic" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 1em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">λύω "release",<br />
aor. λυσ(α)-</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">indicative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">subjunctive</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">optative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">imperative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">infinitive</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">participle</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">active</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔλυσ<b>α</b><br />
ἔλυσας<br />
ἔλυσε<br />
ἐλύσαμεν<br />
ἐλύσατε<br />
ἔλυσαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λύσω<br />
λύσῃς<br />
λύσῃ<br />
λύσωμεν<br />
λύσητε<br />
λύσωσι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λύσαιμι<br />
λύσαις<br />
λύσαι<br />
λύσαιμεν<br />
λύσαιτε<br />
λύσαιεν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
λῦσ<b>ον</b><br />
λυσάτω<br />
—<br />
λύσατε<br />
λυσάντων/λυσάτωσαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λῦσ<b>αι</b></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b>λύσας</b><br />
λύσασα<br />
λῦσαν</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">middle</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἐλυσάμην<br />
ἐλύσ<b>ω</b><br />
ἐλύσατο<br />
ἐλυσάμεθα<br />
ἐλύσασθε<br />
ἐλύσαντο</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λύσωμαι<br />
λύσῃ<br />
λύσηται<br />
λυσώμεθα<br />
λύσησθε<br />
λύσωνται</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυσαίμην<br />
λύσαιο<br />
λύσαιτο<br />
λυσαίμεθα<br />
λύσαισθε<br />
λύσαιντο</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
λῦσ<b>αι</b><br />
λυσάσθω<br />
—<br />
λύσασθε<br />
λυσάσθων/λυσάσθωσαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λύσασθαι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυσάμενος<br />
λυσαμένη<br />
λυσάμενον</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">passive</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἐλύθην<br />
ἐλύθης<br />
ἐλύθη<br />
ἐλύθημεν<br />
ἐλύθητε<br />
ἐλύθησαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυθῶ<br />
λυθῇς<br />
λυθῇ<br />
λυθῶμεν<br />
λυθῆτε<br />
λυθῶσι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυθείην<br />
λυθείης<br />
λυθείη<br />
λυθείημεν/λυθεῖμεν<br />
λυθείητε/λυθεῖτε<br />
λυθείησαν/λυθεῖεν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
λύθητι<br />
λυθήτω<br />
—<br />
λύθητε<br />
λυθέντων/λυθήτωσαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυθῆναι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λυθείς<br />
λυθεῖσα<br />
λυθέν</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Second">Second</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The stem of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>second aorist</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is the bare<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Proto-Indo-European root">root</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of the verb,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduplication" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Reduplication">reduplicated</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>version of the root.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>In these verbs, the present stem often has<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>e</i>-grade of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and adds a<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_infix" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nasal infix">nasal infix</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or suffix to the basic verb root, but the aorist has zero-grade (no<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>e</i>) and no infix or suffix.</div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Zero-grade">Zero-grade</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
When the present has a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(e.g., ει), the second aorist has the offglide of the diphthong (ι).</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">present λ<b>ε</b>ίπω "leave", aorist λιπ(<span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>)- (e-grade in present, zero-grade in aorist)</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
When there is no vowel in the present stem besides the e of ablaut, the aorist has no vowel, or has an α from a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Syllabic consonant">vocalic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ρ or λ.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">present πέτομαι "fly", aorist πτ(<span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>)- (e-grade in present, zero-grade in aorist)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">present τρέπω, aorist τραπ(<span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>)- (e-grade ρε in present, zero-grade ρ → ρα in aorist)</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Reduplication">Reduplication</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Present stems of verbs with a reduplicated aorist often do not have e-grade or an infix or suffix.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">present ἄγω "lead", aorist ἄγαγ(<span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>)- (bare stem in present, reduplicated stem in aorist)</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Second_aorist_endings">Second aorist endings</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The endings include an ο or ε (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_vowel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Thematic vowel">thematic vowel</a>). In the indicative, endings are identical to those of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>; in non-indicative moods, they are identical to those of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Present tense">present</a>.</div>
<table class="wikitable polytonic" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 1em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">λείπω "leave",<br />
aor. λιπ(<span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>)-</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">indicative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">subjunctive</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">optative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">imperative</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">infinitive</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">participle</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">active</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἔλιπον<br />
ἔλιπες<br />
ἔλιπεν<br />
ἐλίπομεν<br />
ἐλίπετε<br />
ἔλιπον</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λίπω<br />
λίπῃς<br />
λίπῃ<br />
λίπωμεν<br />
λίπητε<br />
λίπωσιν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λίποιμι<br />
λίποις<br />
λίποι<br />
λίποιμεν<br />
λίποιτε<br />
λίποιεν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
λίπε<br />
λιπέτω<br />
—<br />
λίπετε<br />
λιπόντων</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λιπεῖν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λιπών<br />
λιποῦσα<br />
λιπόν</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">middle</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἐλιπόμην<br />
ἐλίπου<br />
ἐλίπετο<br />
ἐλιπόμεθα<br />
ἐλίπεσθε<br />
ἐλίποντο</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λίπωμαι<br />
λίπῃ/ει<br />
λίπηται<br />
λιπώμεθα<br />
λίπησθε<br />
λίπωνται</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λιποίμην<br />
λίποιο<br />
λίποιτο<br />
λιποίμεθα<br />
λιποίεσθε<br />
λίποιντο</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
λιποῦ<br />
λιπέσθω<br />
—<br />
λίπεσθε<br />
λιπέσθων</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λιπέσθαι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">λιπόμενος<br />
λιπομένη<br />
λιπόμενον</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">passive</th><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">ἐβλάβην<br />
ἐβλάβης<br />
ἐβλάβη<br />
ἐβλάβημεν<br />
ἐβλάβητε<br />
ἐβλάβησαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">βλαβῶ<br />
βλαβῇς<br />
βλαβῇ<br />
βλαβῶμεν<br />
βλαβῆτε<br />
βλαβῶσι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">βλαβείην<br />
βλαβείης<br />
βλαβείη<br />
βλαβείημεν/βλαβεῖμεν<br />
βλαβείητε/βλαβεῖτε<br />
βλαβείησαν/βλαβεῖεν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">—<br />
βλάβητι<br />
βλαβήτω<br />
—<br />
βλάβητε<br />
βλαβέντων/βλαβήτωσαν</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">βλαβῆναι</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">βλαβείς<br />
βλαβεῖσα<br />
βλαβέν</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Second_aorist_passive">Second aorist passive</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
A second aorist passive is distinguished from a first aorist passive only by the absence of θ. A few verbs have passive aorists in both forms, with no distinction in meaning.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
There is no correlation between the first/second aorist distinction in the active and the passive: a verb with an active second aorist may have a passive first aorist or vice versa.</div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Root">Root</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>root aorist</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is characteristic of athematic verbs (those with a present active in -μι). Like the second aorist, the stem is the bare root, and endings are similar to the imperfect in the indicative, and identical to the present in non-indicative moods. It is sometimes included as a subcategory of the second aorist<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>because of these similarities, but unlike the second aorist of thematic verbs, it has no thematic<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="frac nowrap" style="white-space: nowrap;"><sup style="line-height: 1;">ο</sup>⁄<sub style="line-height: 1;">ε</sub></span>.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The singular aorist indicative active of some athematic verbs (τίθημι, ἔθηκα; δίδωμι, ἔδωκα) uses a stem formed by the suffix -κα and takes first aorist rather than root aorist endings.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: 'Linux Libertine', Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 1.5em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 1em 0px 0.25em; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Syntax">Syntax</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h2>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist generally presents a situation as an undivided whole, also known as the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup></div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Indicative_mood">Indicative mood</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist usually implies a past event in the indicative, but it does not assert pastness, and can be used of present or future events.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ἀπωλόμην ἄρ᾽, εἴ με δὴ λείψεις, γύναι.</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">I am undone if you will leave me, wife.
<br />
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcestis_(play)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alcestis (play)">Alcestis</a></i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0087:card=386" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">386</a></dd></dl>
</dd></dl>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Narrative">Narrative</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist and the imperfect are the standard tenses for telling a story. The ordinary distinction between them is between an action considered as a single undivided event and the action as a continuous event. Thus, for example, a process as a whole can be described in the imperfect, while the individual steps in that process will be aorist.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ἔπαιζε ἐν τῇ κώμῃ ταύτῃ ... μετ᾽ ἄλλων ἡλίκων ἐν ὁδῷ. καὶ οἱ παῖδες παίζοντες<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>εἵλοντο</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ἑωυτῶν βασιλέα εἶναι... ὁ δὲ αὐτῶν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>διέταξε</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>τοὺς μὲν οἰκίας οἰκοδομέειν, τοὺς δὲ δορυφόρους εἶναι, τὸν δέ κου τινὰ αὐτῶν ὀφθαλμὸν βασιλέος εἶναι, τῷ δὲ τινὶ τὰς ἀγγελίας φέρειν ἐδίδου γέρας,...<br />[Cyrus] was playing in this village... in the road with others of his age. The boys while playing<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>chose</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to be their king this one.... Then he<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>assigned</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>some of them to the building of houses, some to be his bodyguard, one doubtless to be the King's Eye; to another he gave the right of bringing him messages;....
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i> <a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=1:chapter=114" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">1.114</a></dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">Here the imperfect ἔπαιζε "was playing" is the whole process of the game (which continues past these extracts); the aorists the individual steps.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rijksbaron.2C_.C2.A76.1_12-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-Rijksbaron.2C_.C2.A76.1-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup></dd></dl>
</dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The narrative aorist has the same force, of an undivided or single action, when used by itself:</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ἐπεὶ δὲ εἶδον αὐτὸν οἵπερ πρόσθεν προσεκύνουν, καὶ τότε<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>προσεκύνησαν</b>, καίπερ εἰδότες ὅτι ἐπὶ θάνατον ἄγοιτο.<br />And when the men who in former days were wont to do him homage saw him, they<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>made their obeisance</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>even then, although they knew that he was being led forth to death.
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.:book=6:chapter=10" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">6.10</a></dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;">
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>Were wont to do him homage</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is the imperfect,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>made their obeisance</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>the aorist, of προσκύνω "kowtow".</dd></dl>
</dd></dl>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Complexive">Complexive</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
On the other hand, if the entire action is expressed, not as a continuous action, but as a single undivided event, the aorist is used:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rijksbaron.2C_.C2.A76.1_12-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-Rijksbaron.2C_.C2.A76.1-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Herodotus introduces his story of Cyrus playing with:</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">καὶ ὅτε ἦν δεκαέτης ὁ παῖς, πρῆγμα ἐς αὑτὸν τοιόνδε γενόμενον<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ἐξέφηνέ</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>μιν·<br />Now when the boy was ten years old, the truth about him<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>was revealed</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in some such way as this:
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i> <a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=1:chapter=114" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">1.114</a></dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist is also used when something is described as happening for some definite interval of time; this particular function can be more precisely called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>temporal</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>aorist:</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Οὑμὸς πατὴρ Κέφαλος ἐπείσθη μὲν ὑπὸ Περικλέους εἰς ταύτην γῆν ἀφικέσθαι, ἔτη δὲ τριάκοντα<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ᾤκησε</b>.<br />My father Cephalus was persuaded by Pericles to come to this land and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>lived</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(there) thirty years.
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysias" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lysias">Lysias</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Eratosthenes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Against Eratosthenes">Against Eratosthenes</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>4</dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Past-in-the-past">Past-in-the-past</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The other chief narrative use of the aorist is to express events before the time of the story:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">τούς τε Ἱμεραίους ἔπεισαν ξυμπολεμεῖν καὶ αὐτούς τε ἕπεσθαι καὶ τοῖς ἐκ τῶν νεῶν τῶν σφετέρων ναύταις ὅσοι μὴ εἶχον ὅπλα παρασχεῖν (τὰς γὰρ ναῦς<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ἀνείλκυσαν</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ἐν Ἱμέρᾳ)<br />they persuaded the Himeraeans to join in the war, and not only to go with them themselves but to provide arms for the seamen from their vessels (for they<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>had beached</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>their ships at Himera)
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i> <a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0199:book=7:chapter=1:section=3" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">7.1.3</a></dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
It thus often translates an English or Latin pluperfect: the Greek pluperfect has the narrower function of expressing a state of affairs existing at the time of the story as the result of events before the time of the story.</div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Ingressive">Ingressive</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In verbs denoting a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stative verb">state</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or continuing action, the aorist may express the beginning of the action or the entrance into the state. This is called ingressive aorist (also inceptive or<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchoative_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Inchoative aspect">inchoative</a>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ingressive_14-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-ingressive-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">βασιλεύω "I am king" (present) — ἐβασίλευσα "I became king" or "I ruled" (aorist)
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><i>basileúō</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>—<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ebasíleusa</i></dd></dl>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Resultative">Resultative</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The resultative aorist expresses the result of an action.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Whether this is truly distinguishable from the normal force of the narrative aorist is disputable.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ἐβούλευον "I was deliberating" is imperfect; ἐβούλευσα "I decided" is aorist.</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Gnomic">Gnomic</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnomic_aspect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gnomic aspect">gnomic</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>aorist</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>expresses the way things generally happen, as in proverbs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>empiric aorist</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>states a fact of experience (ἐμπειρίᾱ<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>empeiríā</i>), and is modified by the adverbs<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>often, always, sometimes, already, not yet, never</i>, etc.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(English tends to express similar timeless assertions with the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_present_(English)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Simple present (English)">simple present</a>.)</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The gnomic aorist is regarded as a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_of_tenses" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sequence of tenses">primary tense</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in determining the mood of verbs in subordinate clauses.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>That is to say, subordinate clauses take the subjunctive instead of the optative.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">οἱ τύραννοι πλούσιον ὃν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ἄν βούλωνται</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>παραχρῆμ’ ἐποίησαν (not *ἄν βούλοιεν)<br />Tyrants make rich in a moment whomever<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>they wish</b>.</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0071:speech=20:section=15" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">20.15</a></dd></dl>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Dramatic">Dramatic</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In dialogues within<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Comedy">comedy</a>, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical person">first person</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical number">singular</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>aorist or present expresses an action performed by the act of speaking, like thanking someone (see<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performative_utterance" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Performative utterance">performative utterance</a>), or, according to another analysis, a state of mind.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-19" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>This is called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>tragic</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>dramatic aorist</b>. The aorist is used when the action is complete in the single statement; the present when the speaker goes on to explain how or why he is acting.</div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ἀλλαντοπώλης. <b>ἥσθην</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ἀπειλαῖς,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ἐγέλασα</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ψολοκομπίαις,<br /><b>ἀπεπυδάρισα</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>μόθωνα,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>περιεκόκκασα</b>.<br />Sausage-seller. <b>I like</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>your threats,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>laugh</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>at your empty bluster,<br /><b>dance</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>a fling, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>cry cuckoo all around</b>.</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Knights" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="The Knights">The Knights</a></i> <a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0033:card=696" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">696–697</a>: translated by William James Hickie<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-20" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Indicative_mood_with_particle">Indicative mood with particle</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Unattainable_wish">Unattainable wish</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
A wish about the past that cannot be fulfilled is expressed by the aorist indicative with the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>εἴθε or εἰ γάρ "if only" (<i>eíthe</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ei gár</i>). This is called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>aorist of unattainable wish</b>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-wish_21-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-wish-21" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>εἴθε</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>σοι, ὦ Περίκλεις, τότε<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>συνεγενόμην</b>.<br /><b>If only I had been with</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>you then, Pericles!</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorabilia_(Xenophon)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Memorabilia (Xenophon)">Memorabilia</a></i> <a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0207:book=1:chapter=2:section=46" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">1.2.46</a></dd></dl>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
An unattainable wish about the present uses the imperfect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-wish_21-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-wish-21" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>A wish about the future uses the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optative_(Ancient_Greek)#Wish" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optative (Ancient Greek)">optative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>with or without a particle;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-22" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[22]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>an optative of wish may be unattainable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-23" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[23]</a></sup></div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Past_potential">Past potential</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist indicative (less commonly the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>) with the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical mood">modal</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grammatical particle">particle</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ἄν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>án</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>κέ(ν)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ké(n)</i>, may express past<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrealis_mood#Potential" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Irrealis mood">potentiality</a>, probability, or necessity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-24" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[24]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; orphans: auto; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">τίς γὰρ<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>ἂν ᾠήθη</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>ταῦτα γένεσθαι;<br />For who<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>would have expected</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>these things to happen?</li>
</ul>
<dl style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0071:speech=9:section=68" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: linear-gradient(transparent, transparent), url(data:image/svg+xml; background-position: 100% 50%, 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">9.68</a></dd></dl>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Iterative">Iterative</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist indicative<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-25" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[25]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(also the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfect" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>, or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequentative#Greek" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Frequentative">past iterative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>) with ἄν<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>án</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>may express repeated or customary past action. This is called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>iterative indicative</b>. It is similar to the past potential, since it denotes what could have happened at a given point, but unlike the past potential, it is a statement of fact.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-26" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[26]</a></sup></div>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Unreal">Unreal</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The aorist or imperfect indicative with ἄν may express past unreality or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Counterfactual conditional">counterfactuality</a>. This is called the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>unreal indicative</b>. This construction is used in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequent" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Consequent">consequence</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of past counterfactual<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_sentence" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conditional sentence">conditional sentences</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-27" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[27]</a></sup></div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Participles">Participles</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Outside of indirect discourse, an aorist participle may express any time (past, present, or rarely future)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_and_absolute_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Relative and absolute tense">relative</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to the main verb.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-28" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[28]</a></sup></div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Non-indicative_moods">Non-indicative moods</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Outside of the indicative mood, sometimes the aorist determines time (often past time), and sometimes the function of the mood determines it. When the aorist does not determine time, it determines aspect instead.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-moodtense_29-0" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-moodtense-29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[29]</a></sup></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Aorist in indirect discourse refers to past time relative to the main verb, since it replaces an aorist indicative.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
An imperative, subjunctive or optative in an independent clause usually refers to future time, because the imperative express a command, the subjunctive expresses urging, prohibition, or deliberation, and the optative expresses a wish or possibility.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_clause" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dependent clause">dependent clauses</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(temporal,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_sentence" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conditional sentence">conditional</a>, etc.), the time (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Past tense">past</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Present tense">present</a>, or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_tense" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Future tense">future</a>) of an aorist subjunctive, optative, or imperative is based on the function of the mood.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-moodtense_29-1" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-moodtense-29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[29]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The subjunctive is used with main verbs in the present and future tenses (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_of_tenses" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sequence of tenses">primary sequence</a>), and the optative is used with main verbs in the past tenses (secondary sequence) and to express<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrealis_mood#Potential" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Irrealis mood">potentiality</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in the future.</div>
<h3 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.17em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Optative_mood">Optative mood</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h3>
<h4 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; color: black; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0.5em; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Potential">Potential</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="display: inline-block; font-family: "arimo" , "liberation sans" , "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.25em; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span><span class="mw-editsection-bracket"></span></span></h4>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
In the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optative_mood#Potential" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optative mood">potential optative</a>, the aorist expresses aspect, and the potential optative implies future time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorist_(Ancient_Greek)#cite_note-30" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[30]</a></sup></div>
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 21px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<br /></div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-41980143374756040592016-07-31T03:57:00.001+01:002016-08-28T00:18:43.568+01:00 אָלֶף־בֵּית עִבְרִי<a href="http://www.keddem.org/PublicDocs/YKWorkshops_5770/Basic%20Laws%20Regarding%20Torah%20Scrolls.pdf">Basic Laws Regarding Torah Scrolls</a><br />
<br />
A Torah Scroll is handwritten by a scribe with a feather and special ink on carefully prepared parchment.<br />
An authentic Sefer Torah is a mind-boggling masterpiece of labor and skill. Comprising between 62 and 84 sheets of<br />
parchment-cured, tanned, scraped and prepared according to exacting Halachic specifications-and containing exactly<br />
304,805 letters, the resulting handwritten scroll takes many months to complete.<br />
<br />
An expert scribe carefully inks each letter with a feather quill, under the intricate calligraphic guidelines of Ktav<br />
Ashurit (Ashurite Script). The sheets of parchment are then sewn together with sinews to form one long scroll.<br />
While most Torah scrolls stand around two feet in height and weigh 20-25 pounds, some are huge and quite heavy,<br />
while others are doll-sized and lightweight. <br />
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1aYLzlbRAeE" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Uploaded on Oct 11, 2011<br />
This video illustrates the scribal formation of each Hebrew letter for writing a Torah. British sofer, Mordechai Michaels (www.sofer.co.uk) created this animation as a commission for the Contemporary Jewish Museum of San Francisco for the exhibition, As It Is Written: Project 304,805 <a href="http://www.thecjm.org/">www.thecjm.org</a>.<br />
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" target="_blank"><b>Hebrew alphabet</b></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl" style="font-family: "alef" , "sbl hebrew" , "david clm" , "frenk ruehl clm" , "hadasim clm" , "shofar" , "david" , "noto sans hebrew" , "ezra sil" , "ezra sil sr" , "freeserif" , "times new roman" , "freesans" , "arial"; font-size: 16.1px;"><a class="extiw" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" style="background: none; color: #663366; text-decoration: none;" title="wikt:אלפבית">אָלֶף־בֵּית</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>עִבְרִי</span><sup class="reference" id="ref_Common_Hebrew_Spelling" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet#endnote_Common_Hebrew_Spelling" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[a]</a></sup>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><span class="Unicode" style="text-decoration: none; white-space: normal;" title="Hebrew transliteration">Alefbet ʿIvri</span></i>), known variously by scholars as the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Jewish script</b>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>square script</b>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>block script</b>, is used in the writing of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a>, as well as of other<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_languages" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a>, most notably<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a>. There have been two script forms in use; the original old Hebrew script is known as the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(which has been largely preserved, in an altered form, in the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaritan_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Samaritan alphabet">Samaritan alphabet</a>), while the present "square" form of the Hebrew alphabet is a stylized form of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and was known by Israel's sages as the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashuri_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ashuri alphabet">Ashuri alphabet</a>, since its origins were alleged to be from Assyria.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet#cite_note-1" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Various "styles" (in current terms, "fonts") of representation of the letters exist. There is also a<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cursive Hebrew">cursive Hebrew</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>script, which has also varied over time and place.</div><div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 22.4px; margin: 0.5em 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not have<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_case" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Letter case">case</a>, but five letters have different forms when used at the end of a word. Hebrew is<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system#Directionality" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Writing system">written from right to left</a>. Originally, the alphabet was an<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Abjad">abjad</a></i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>consisting only of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Consonant">consonants</a>. As with other<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>abjads</i>, such as the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>, scribes later devised means of indicating<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vowel">vowel</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niqqud" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Niqqud">niqqud</a></i>. In rabbinic Hebrew, the letters<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl" style="font-family: "alef" , "sbl hebrew" , "david clm" , "frenk ruehl clm" , "hadasim clm" , "shofar" , "david" , "noto sans hebrew" , "ezra sil" , "ezra sil sr" , "freeserif" , "times new roman" , "freesans" , "arial"; font-size: 16.1px;">א ה ו י</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>are also used as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mater_lectionis" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mater lectionis">matres lectionis</a></i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(the use of certain consonants to indicate a vowel) to represent vowels. A modified version of the Hebrew alphabet is used to write Yiddish, known as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_alphabet" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yiddish alphabet">Yiddish alphabet</a>, which is a true alphabet (except for borrowed Hebrew words). In modern usage of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish (except that<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl" style="font-family: "alef" , "sbl hebrew" , "david clm" , "frenk ruehl clm" , "hadasim clm" , "shofar" , "david" , "noto sans hebrew" , "ezra sil" , "ezra sil sr" , "freeserif" , "times new roman" , "freesans" , "arial"; font-size: 16.1px;">ע</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>replaces<span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl" style="font-family: "alef" , "sbl hebrew" , "david clm" , "frenk ruehl clm" , "hadasim clm" , "shofar" , "david" , "noto sans hebrew" , "ezra sil" , "ezra sil sr" , "freeserif" , "times new roman" , "freesans" , "arial"; font-size: 16.1px;">ה</span>) and to some extent modern<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is toward<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">full spelling</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>with these letters acting as true vowels.</div><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/a5Brbqgngrc" width="560"></iframe></div>emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-32028434484132310332016-07-31T03:57:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:48:09.704+01:00learnsanskrit.org<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="mangala" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://learnsanskrit.org/"><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">learnsanskrit.org</dfn></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>aims to explore how the unique qualities of the Internet can facilitate the task of learning and teaching Sanskrit. To some extent this site is iconoclastic, for although it owes much to both traditional Sanskrit grammar and classical Western philology, it does away with both whenever they make the task of learning Sanskrit needlessly complicated.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The heart of the site is the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>grammar guide</b>, which has been under slow but steady development for a few years. Featuring thousands of exercises, more than one hundred lessons, and dozens of images and audio clips, the guide presents Sanskrit grammar in a fresh way without sacrificing clarity, depth, or its enthusiastic spirit!</div>
<div class="notice" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 1.1em; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/grammar" style="background-color: #444444; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-left-radius: 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px; border-top-left-radius: 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px; box-shadow: rgb(51, 34, 17) 0px 3px 5px; color: #eeeeee; padding: 7px; text-decoration: none;">Click here to go to the grammar guide!</a></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
To better enable Sanskrit's growth on the Internet, the site also has a collection of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>tools</b>. The most popular of these tools is<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/tools/sanscript" style="color: #999977;">Sanscript</a>, a transliteration program that is hosted on this site. Also hosted here is an old copy of Dr. Oliver Hellwig's<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/tools/ocr" style="color: #999977;">SanskritOCR</a>, which is not readily available elsewhere.</div>
<hr style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #ccbbaa; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; height: 1px; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 1em auto; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 907.875px; word-spacing: 0px;" />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
You can read more about the site itself on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/about" style="color: #999977;">about page</a>. To see what sort of software can enhance your use of the site, consult<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/use" style="color: #999977;">this page</a>.</div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-82491589186983108542016-07-31T03:55:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:49:10.480+01:00Sanskrit Grammar<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 36px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; overflow: hidden; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-shadow: rgb(170, 170, 170) 1px 1px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/grammar" target="_blank">Sanskrit Grammar</a></h1>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
This<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">grammar guide</dfn>, which is more accurately an online textbook, has been designed to teach the most useful and common parts of Sanskrit grammar as early as possible. Students who complete the first few units should be able to read more than half of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Bhagavad Gita</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>with the help of a dictionary, and students who finish the guide should be able to read the entire text, as well as many others that are much more difficult.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>The guide assumes no background knowledge</b>, but a basic familiarity with Indian culture will help.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
The guide is split into<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">units</dfn>, each of which talks about a specific chunk of Sanskrit grammar. Within these units are<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">chapters</dfn>, which focus on a particular area of Sanskrit. These chapters are split into individual<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">lessons</dfn>, which cover an aspect of that area in detail.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><dfn style="color: #000099; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Supplemental lessons</dfn><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>can be found<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/supp" style="color: #999977;">here</a>.</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino, 'Palatino Linotype', serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1.6em; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
A good place to start is the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/introduction" style="color: #999977;">Introduction</a></b>, especially if you do not know too much about Sanskrit. For the best viewing experience, you might also read about<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.learnsanskrit.org/use" style="color: #999977;">using the site</a>. The site will be easier to read on a more modern browser, and the right fonts and files can help greatly.</div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-24603875708871278292016-07-31T03:29:00.000+01:002016-07-31T03:29:01.750+01:00How to type in Devanāgarī<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/keyboards.html<br />
<br />
<div class="center tocheader" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 0px; text-align: center; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Quick Links</div>
<div class="center b" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/keyboards.html#howto" style="color: darkblue; outline: none;">How to type in Devanāgarī</a></div>
<div class="center b" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/keyboards.html#windows" style="color: darkblue; outline: none;">Setup: Microsoft Windows XP/Vista</a></div>
<div class="center b" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/keyboards.html#macosx" style="color: darkblue; outline: none;">Setup: Mac OSX</a></div>
<div class="center b" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<a href="http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/keyboards.html#charmap" style="color: darkblue; outline: none;">Keyboard layout character map</a><br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div class="sechead" id="howto" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
How type in Devanāgarī</div>
<div class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
The Devanāgarī-QWERTY keyboard layout is designed to ease the process of typing in the Devanāgarī script for those using Roman-alphabet. Wherever possible, Devanāgarī letters are mapped to similar Roman-alphabet keys. The layout is quite simple and consisent, with only a few exceptions.</div>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Consonants</div>
<ul class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; list-style-type: square; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Most keystrokes type a single full syllable (with inherent "a" vowel):<br />
t =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">त</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| d =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">द</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| n =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">न</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| s =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">स</span></li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">The Shift-key usually imply aspiration, or alternate nasals/sibilants:<br />
T =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">थ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| D =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ध</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| N =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ण</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| S =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">श</span></li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">The AltGr-key(⌥) (<i>Option</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Mac OS,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Ctrl+Alt</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Right-Alt</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Windows) allows access to Retroflex consonants, as well as additional nasals/sibilants. Again, adding the Shift-key usually implies aspiration or alternate nasals/sibilants:<br />
(⌥) t =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ट</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| D =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ढ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| n =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ञ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| S =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ष</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Vowels</div>
<ul class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; list-style-type: square; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Vowel keys typically represent post-consonantal forms. The Shift-key allows access to long forms.<br />
t + i =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">त</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ि</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>=<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ति</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| d + I =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">द</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ी</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>=<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">दी</span></li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">The AltGr-key(⌥) (<i>Option</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Mac OS,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Ctrl+Alt</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Right-Alt</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>in Windows) allows access to full vowel forms:<br />
(⌥) a =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">अ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| A =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">आ</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| e =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ए</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| E =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ऐ</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Special Characters, Conjuncts, and Shortcuts</div>
<ul class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; list-style-type: square; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Common characters like the Anusvara, Visarga, Virama, Avagraha, and Danda can be accessed using the following keys:<br />
M =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ं</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| H =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ः</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| f =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">्</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| (⌥) ' =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ऽ</span><br />
. =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">।</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| (⌥) > =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">॥</span></li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Consonantal Conjuncts can be formed by placing a Virama in between each consonant in the conjunct:<br />
t + f + v =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">त</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">्</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">व</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>=<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">त्व</span></li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Several common letters and conjuncts can be accessed through shortcuts:<br />
x =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ष</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| X =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">क्ष</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| (⌥) s =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">श्र</span><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>| (⌥) j =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="deva" style="font-family: "arial unicode ms" , "mangal"; font-size: 24px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.4;">ज्ञ</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Roman Letters</div>
<ul class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; list-style-type: square; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Should you need quick access, the Caps Lock key will allow you to type in the Roman alphabet. Pressing Shift while Caps Lock is active will allow you to type in Roman capitals.</li>
</ul>
<div class="sechead" id="windows" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Setup: Microsoft Windows XP/Vista</div>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Installing the Devanāgarī-QWERTY Keyboard</div>
<ol class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Download and run<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b><a href="http://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/Devanagari-QWERTY.exe" style="color: darkblue; outline: none;">Devanāgarī-QWERTY Keyboard Layout</a></b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Choose a folder to extract to.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Navigate to that folder and run<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>setup.exe</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Open<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Control Panel</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Regional and Language Options</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">(XP) Click the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Languages</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>tab, and then click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Details</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>under<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>"Text Services and Input Languages"</i>.<br />
(Vista) Click the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Keyboards and Languages</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>tab, and then click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Change Keyboards</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Add</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">(XP) Under<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>"Input language"</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>choose<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Sanskrit</b>, under<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>"Keyboard Layout/IME"</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>choose<b>Devanāgarī-QWERTY</b>.<br />
(Vista) Scroll to and double-click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Sanskrit</b>, then<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Keyboard</b>. Select the checkbox next to<b>Devanāgarī-QWERTY</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>OK</b>.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">(XP) Click<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Language Bar</b>. Select the checkboxes next to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Show the Language Bar</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Show additional Language Bar icons</b>.<br />
(Vista) Click the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Language Bar</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>tab, and select<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Docked in the taskbar</b>.</li>
</ol>
<div class="subhead" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
To switch between keyboard layouts in Windows:</div>
<ol class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px auto; orphans: auto; padding-left: 25px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Click on the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Language Bar</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(it may be free-floating, or docked in the bottom-left taskbar). It should display an "EN", "FR", or "SA" icon depending on your input language.</li>
<li style="padding-bottom: 5px;">Choose<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Sanskrit (India)</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>from the menu and start typing.</li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="sechead" id="charmap" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-top: 5px; text-align: start; text-decoration: underline; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Keyboard layout character map</div>
<div class="blockquote" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; width: 700px; word-spacing: 0px;">
Below is a complete map of the Devanāgarī-QWERTY keyboard layout with every possible combination of keys:</div>
<br style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;" />
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows/Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Base Keyboard Layout<img alt="Base Keyboard Layout" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Base Keyboard Layout" width="860" /></div>
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows/Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Shift<img alt="Shift" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB-Shift.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Shift" width="860" /></div>
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Ctrl+Alt / (Right-Alt)<br />
<b>Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Option<img alt="Ctrl+Alt / Right-Alt / Option" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB-AltGr.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Ctrl+Alt / Right-Alt / Option" width="860" /></div>
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Shift+Ctrl+Alt / Shift+(Right-Alt)<br />
<b>Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Shift+Option<img alt="Shift+Ctrl+Alt / Shift+Right-Alt / Shift-Option" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB-Shift-AltGr.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Shift+Ctrl+Alt / Shift+Right-Alt / Shift-Option" width="860" /></div>
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows/Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(Caps Lock On)<img alt="Caps Lock On" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB-CapsLock.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Caps Lock On" width="860" /></div>
<div class="kb" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px outset gray; color: black; font-family: Tahoma, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 10px; orphans: auto; padding: 10px 2px 5px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b>Windows/Mac:</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Shift (Caps Lock On)<img alt="Shift (Caps Lock On)" height="310" src="https://www.ubcsanskrit.ca/images/KB-Shift-CapsLock.png" style="border: 1px solid gray; margin-top: 10px;" title="Shift (Caps Lock On)" width="860" /></div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-56428551194925412042016-07-31T01:43:00.000+01:002016-07-28T16:51:10.758+01:00Sanskrit Numbers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 id="toc0">
Numerals 0 to 9</h1>
<table style="margin: 0 0px; width: 90%;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 100px;"><b>Devanaga<span style="background-color: #666666;"></span><span style="background-color: #666666;"></span>ri</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">२</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">३</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">४</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">५</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">६</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">७</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">८</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">९</span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Indian/Hindu</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">0</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">1</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">2</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">3</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">4</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">5</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">6</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">7</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">8</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">9</td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Sanskrit word</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">शून्य</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">एक</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">द्वि</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">त्रि</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">चतुर्</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">पञ्च</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">षष्</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">सप्त</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">अष्ट</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">नव</td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver;"><br /></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">śūnya</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">éka<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-1">1</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">dvi<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-2">2</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">trí<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-3">3</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">catúr<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-4">4</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">pañca<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-5">5</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">ṣáṣ<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-6">6</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">saptá<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-7">7</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">aṣṭá<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-8">8</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">náva<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-9">9</a></sup></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 id="toc1">
Numerals 10 to 100</h1>
<table style="margin: 0 0px; width: 90%;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 100px;"><b>Devanagari</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">२</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">३</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">४</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">५</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">६</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">७</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">८</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">९</span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Indian/Hindu</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">10</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">11</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">12</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">13</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">14</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">15</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">16</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">17</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">18</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">19</td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Sanskrit word</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">dasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">ékadasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">dvadasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">trayodasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">caturdasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">pancadasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">shash</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">saptadasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">aṣṭádasa</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">návadasa</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<table style="margin: 0 0px; width: 90%;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 100px;"><b>Devanagari</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">२</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">३</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">४</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">५</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">६</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">७</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">८</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">९</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center; width: 50px;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">१</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span><span style="font-size: x-large;">०</span></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Indian/Hindu</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">20</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">30</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">40</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">50</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">60</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">70</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">80</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">90</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">100</td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background-color: #0000ee; border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;"><b>Sanskrit word</b></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">vimsati<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-10">10</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">trimsati<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-11">11</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">catvarimsati<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-12">12</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">pancasat<sup class="footnoteref"><a class="footnoteref" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204" id="footnoteref-13">13</a></sup></td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">sasti</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">sapti</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">asiti</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">navati</td> <td style="border: 1px solid silver; text-align: center;">satam, sata</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 id="toc2">
Numerals greater then 100</h1>
<table class="wiki-content-table"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Number</th> <th>Sanskrit</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>200</td> <td>dvisata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>300</td> <td>trisata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>356</td> <td>sat pancasat trisata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>400</td> <td>catursata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>500</td> <td>pancasata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1000</td> <td>sahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>2000</td> <td>dvisahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>3000</td> <td>trisahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>4000</td> <td>catursahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10,000</td> <td>dasasahasra, ayuta</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>20,000</td> <td>vimsatsahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>30,000</td> <td>trimsatsahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>100,000</td> <td>satasahasra, laksha, lak</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>200,000</td> <td>dvi-sata-sahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>300,000</td> <td>tri-sata-sahasra</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1,000,000</td> <td>prayuta, niyuta</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10,000,000</td> <td>koti, krore</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>100,000,000</td> <td>arbuda, vrnda, nyarbuda</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 id="toc3">
Numerals from Billion and above</h1>
<table class="wiki-content-table"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Number</th> <th>Sanskrit</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>1,000,000,000</td> <td>abja, shatakoti, maharbuda, nikharva, nikarvaka, badva</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10,000,000,000</td> <td>kharva</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>100,000,000,000</td> <td>nikharva, akshita</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1,000,000,000,000</td> <td>mahaapadma, antya, antyam, nikharva</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10,000,000,000,000</td> <td>sha.nku</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>100,000,000,000,000</td> <td>jaladhi</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1000,000,000,000,000</td> <td>antya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10,000,000,000,000,000</td> <td>madhya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>100,000,000,000,000,000</td> <td>paraardha</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1 id="toc4">
Word-Numeral Decimal System</h1>
It was the ancient Bharatbhoomi that gave us the ingenious methods of expressing all the numbers by means of 10 symbols (decimal systems). The highest prefix used for raising 10 to the power in today's mathematics is "D" for 10<sup>30</sup> (for Greek Deca). While as early as 100 BC Hindu mathematicians had exact names for figures up to 10<sup>53</sup>.<br />
<table class="wiki-content-table"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Word-Numeral</th> <th>Decimal Equivalent</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>Ekam</td> <td>10<sup>0</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Dashkam</td> <td>10<sup>1</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1 Shatam</td> <td>10<sup>2</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1 Shahashram</td> <td>10<sup>3</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>10 Dash Shahashram</td> <td>10<sup>4</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Laksha</td> <td>10<sup>5</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Dash Laksha</td> <td>10<sup>6</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Kotihi</td> <td>10<sup>7</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Ayutam</td> <td>10<sup>9</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Niyutam</td> <td>10<sup>11</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Kankaram</td> <td>10<sup>13</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Vivaram</td> <td>10<sup>16</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Pararadahaa</td> <td>10<sup>17</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Nivahata</td> <td>10<sup>19</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Utsangaha</td> <td>10<sup>21</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Bahulam</td> <td>10<sup>23</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Naagbaalaha</td> <td>10<sup>25</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Titlambam</td> <td>10<sup>27</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Vyavasthaanapragnaptihi</td> <td>10<sup>29</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Hetuhellam</td> <td>10<sup>31</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Karahuhu</td> <td>10<sup>33</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Hetvindreeyam</td> <td>10<sup>35</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Sampaata Lambhaha</td> <td>10<sup>37</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Gananaagatihi</td> <td>10<sup>39</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Niravadyam</td> <td>10<sup>41</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Mudraabalam</td> <td>10<sup>43</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Saraabalam</td> <td>10<sup>45</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Vishamagnagatihi</td> <td>10<sup>47</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Sarvagnaha</td> <td>10<sup>49</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Vibhutangaama</td> <td>10<sup>51</sup></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>Tallakshanaam</td> <td>10<sup>53</sup></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<h1>
References</h1>
<div class="footnotes-footer">
<div class="title">
Footnotes</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-1">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">1</a>. <b>éka</b> (एक) or ekah</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-2">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">2</a>. <b>dvi</b> (द्वि) or dvau / dva / dve</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-3">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">3</a>. <b>trí</b> (त्रि) or tryah, tisra</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-4">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">4</a>. <b>catúr</b> (चतुर्) or catvaras, catasras, catvari</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-5">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">5</a>. <b>pañca</b> (पञ्च)</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-6">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">6</a>. <b>ṣáṣ</b> (षष्) or sat, shash</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-7">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">7</a>. <b>saptá</b> (सप्त)</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-8">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">8</a>. <b>aṣṭá</b> (अष्ट) or astau</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-9">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">9</a>. <b>náva</b> (नव)</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-10">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">10</a>. vinshat, vinshati, dvidasha</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-11">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">11</a>. trinsha, trinshat</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-12">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">12</a>. catvarinshat</div>
<div class="footnote-footer" id="footnote-13">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6979387824407499698&postID=5642855119492541204">13</a>. panchasha, panchashat, ardha shata: half of a hundred</div>
</div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-377560261782621642016-07-31T00:57:00.001+01:002016-07-31T00:57:00.956+01:00Writing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrtg/hd_wrtg.htm">Recent archaeological research indicates that the origin and spread of writing may be more complex than previously thought.</a> Complex state systems with proto-cuneiform writing on clay and wood may have existed in Syria and Turkey as early as the mid-fourth millennium B.C. If further excavations in these areas confirm this assumption, then writing on clay tablets found at Uruk would constitute only a single phase of the early development of writing. The Uruk archives may reflect a later period when writing "took off" as the need for more permanent accounting practices became evident with the rapid growth of large cities with mixed populations at the end of the fourth millennium B.C. Clay became the preferred medium for recording bureaucratic items as it was abundant, cheap, and durable in comparison to other mediums.<br />
<br />
<hr />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<br />
<h2 style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(156, 147, 134); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #444444; font-family: trajan-pro-3-n4, trajan-pro-3, serif; font-size: 22px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 50px; orphans: auto; padding-bottom: 10px; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
Definition</h2>
<div id="tag_definition_text" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Article" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px;">
<div class="ci_header">
<div class="ci_info wide" style="color: #9c9386; display: table; font-size: 10px; line-height: 11px; margin: 5px 0px; width: 681px;">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 681px;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="ci_author_image" style="width: 32px;"><img border="0" height="32" src="https://www.ancient.eu.com/template/images/avatar_placeholder.png" width="32" /></td><td class="ci_author" style="display: table-cell; padding-left: 6px; vertical-align: middle;">by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/user/JPryst/" rel="" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
published on 28 April 2011</td><td class="ci_social_media_buttons" style="width: 245px;"><div class="addthis_toolbox addthis_default_style addthis_16x16_style" style="float: right; width: 100px;">
<a class="addthis_button_facebook no_external at300b" href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/writing/#" style="color: #b52600; cursor: pointer; float: left; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 2px; text-decoration: none;" title="Facebook"><span class="at16nc at300bs at15nc at15t_facebook at16t_facebook" style="background-image: url(https://ct1.addthis.com/static/r07/widget016_top.gif); background-position: 0px -272px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; cursor: pointer; display: block; float: left; height: 16px; line-height: 16px !important; overflow: hidden; width: 16px;"><span class="at_a11y" style="height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; position: absolute !important; top: auto !important; width: 1px !important;">Share on facebook</span></span></a><a class="addthis_button_google_plusone_share no_external at300b" href="http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300&winname=addthis&pub=ra-5177d5d31280befa&source=tbx-300&lng=en-US&s=google_plusone_share&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancient.eu.com%2Fwriting%2F&title=Writing%20--%20Ancient%20History%20Encyclopedia&ate=AT-ra-5177d5d31280befa/-/-/532645f0cd80afe5/2&frommenu=1&uid=532645f02a0e3318&ct=1&pre=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&tt=0&captcha_provider=nucaptcha" style="color: #b52600; cursor: pointer; float: left; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank" title="Google+"><span class="at16nc at300bs at15nc at15t_google_plusone_share at16t_google_plusone_share" style="background-image: url(https://ct1.addthis.com/static/r07/widget016_top.gif); background-position: 0px -352px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; cursor: pointer; display: block; float: left; height: 16px; line-height: 16px !important; overflow: hidden; width: 16px;"><span class="at_a11y" style="height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; position: absolute !important; top: auto !important; width: 1px !important;">Share on google_plusone_share</span></span></a><a class="addthis_button_twitter no_external at300b" href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/writing/#" style="color: #b52600; cursor: pointer; float: left; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 2px; text-decoration: none;" title="Tweet"><span class="at16nc at300bs at15nc at15t_twitter at16t_twitter" style="background-image: url(https://ct1.addthis.com/static/r07/widget016_top.gif); background-position: 0px -832px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; cursor: pointer; display: block; float: left; height: 16px; line-height: 16px !important; overflow: hidden; width: 16px;"><span class="at_a11y" style="height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; position: absolute !important; top: auto !important; width: 1px !important;">Share on twitter</span></span></a><a class="addthis_button_pinterest_share no_external at300b" href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/writing/#" style="color: #b52600; cursor: pointer; float: left; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank" title="Pinterest"><span class="at16nc at300bs at15nc at15t_pinterest_share at16t_pinterest_share" style="background-image: url(https://ct1.addthis.com/static/r07/widget016_top.gif); background-position: 0px -656px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; cursor: pointer; display: block; float: left; height: 16px; line-height: 16px !important; overflow: hidden; width: 16px;"><span class="at_a11y" style="height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; position: absolute !important; top: auto !important; width: 1px !important;">Share on pinterest_share</span></span></a><a class="addthis_button_linkedin no_external at300b" href="http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300&winname=addthis&pub=ra-5177d5d31280befa&source=tbx-300&lng=en-US&s=linkedin&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancient.eu.com%2Fwriting%2F&title=Writing%20--%20Ancient%20History%20Encyclopedia&ate=AT-ra-5177d5d31280befa/-/-/532645f0cd80afe5/3&frommenu=1&uid=532645f0fe7aa4cf&ct=1&pre=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&tt=0&captcha_provider=nucaptcha" style="color: #b52600; cursor: pointer; float: left; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank" title="LinkedIn"><span class="at16nc at300bs at15nc at15t_linkedin at16t_linkedin" style="background-image: url(https://ct1.addthis.com/static/r07/widget016_top.gif); background-position: 0px -416px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; cursor: pointer; display: block; float: left; height: 16px; line-height: 16px !important; overflow: hidden; width: 16px;"><span class="at_a11y" style="height: 1px !important; overflow: hidden !important; position: absolute !important; top: auto !important; width: 1px !important;">Share on linkedin</span></span></a></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
</div>
<a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/image/93/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Cuneiform Writing"><img class="tag_definition_image" itemprop="image" src="https://www.ancient.eu.com/uploads/images/preview-93.jpg" style="border: 1px solid silver; display: block; float: right; margin: 0px auto 1em 1em; padding: 3px;" /></a><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/writing/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Writing</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is the physical manifestation of a spoken language. It is thought that human beings developed language c. 35,000 BCE as evidenced by cave paintings from the period of the Cro-Magnon Man (c. 50,000-30,000 BCE) which appear to express concepts concerning daily life. These images suggest a language because, in some instances, they seem to tell a story (say, of a hunting expedition in which specific events occurred) rather than being simply pictures of animals and people. Written language, however, does not emerge until its invention in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/sumer/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sumer</a>, southern<a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Mesopotamia/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Mesopotamia</a>, c. 3500 -3000 BCE. This early writing was called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/cuneiform/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">cuneiform</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and consisted of making specific marks in wet clay with a reed implement. The writing system of the Egyptians was already in use before the rise of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150 BCE) and is thought to have developed from Mesopotamian cuneiform (though this theory is disputed) and came to be known as heiroglyphics. The phoenetic writing systems of the Greeks, and later the Romans, came from<a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/phoenicia/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Phoenicia</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(hence, the name). The Phoenician writing system, though quite different from that of Mesopotamia, still owes its development to the Sumerians and their advances in the written word. Independently of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Near_East/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Near East</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/europe/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Europe</a>, writing was developed in Mesoamerica by the Maya c. 250 CE (though some evidence suggests a date as early as 500 BCE). Writing in<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/china/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">China</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>developed from divination rites using oracle bones c. 1200 BCE and appears to also have arisen independently as there is no evidence of cultural transference at this time between China and Mesopotamia. The ancient Chinese practice of divination involved etching marks on bones or shells which were then heated until they cracked. The cracks would then be interpreted by a Diviner. If that Diviner had etched `Next Tuesday it will rain' and `Next Tuesday it will not rain' the pattern of the cracks on the bone or shell would tell him which would be the case. In time, these etchings evolved into the Chinese<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/script/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">script</a>.<br />
<b>Writing and History</b><br />
History is impossible without the written word as one would lack context in which to interpret physical evidence from the ancient past.Writing records the lives of a people and so is the first necessary step in the written history of a culture or<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/civilization/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">civilization</a>. A prime example of this problem is the difficulty scholars of the late 19th/early 20th centuries CE had in understanding the Mayan Civilization, in that they could not read the glyphs of the Maya and so wrongly interpreted much of the physical evidence they excavated. The early explorers of the Mayan sites, such as Stephens and Catherwood, believed they had found evidence of an ancient Egyptian civilization in Central America. This same problem is evident in understanding the ancient Kingdom of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Meroe/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Meroe</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(in modern day Sudan), whose Meroitic Script is yet to be deciphered as well as the so-called Linear A script of the ancient Minoan culture of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/crete/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Crete</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>which also has yet to be understood.<br />
<div class="big_quote" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(228, 222, 215); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 3px; border-top-color: rgb(228, 222, 215); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; color: #b52600; display: block; float: right; font-family: georgia; font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; margin: 10px; padding: 1em; text-align: center; width: 300px;">
The Sumerians first invented writing as a means of long-distance communication which was necessitated by<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/trade/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">trade</a>.</div>
<b>The Invention of Writing</b><br />
The Sumerians first invented writing as a means of long-distance communication which was necessitated by trade. With the rise of the cities in Mesopotamia, and the need for resources which were lacking in the region, long-distance trade developed and, with it, the need to be able to communicate across the expanses between cities or regions. The earliest form of writing was pictographs – symbols which represented objects – and served to aid in remembering such things as which parcels of grain had gone to which destination or how many sheep were needed for events like sacrifices in the temples. These pictographs were impressed onto wet clay which was then dried, and these became official records of commerce. As<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Beer/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">beer</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>was a very popular beverage in ancient Mesopotamia, many of the earliest records extant have to do with the sale of beer. With pictographs, one could tell how many jars or vats of beer were involved in a transaction but not necessarily what that transaction meant. As the historian Kriwaczek notes,<br />
<blockquote style="border-left-color: silver; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 3px; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px;">
All that had been devised thus far was a technique for noting down things, items and objects, not a writing system. A record of `Two Sheep<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/temple/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Temple</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>God<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Inanna/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Inanna</a>’ tells us nothing about whether the sheep are being delivered to, or received from, the temple, whether they are carcasses, beasts on the hoof, or anything else about them (63).</blockquote>
In order to express concepts more complex than financial transactions or lists of items, a more elaborate writing system was required, and this was developed in the Sumerian<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/city/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">city</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/uruk/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Uruk</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>c. 3200 BCE. Pictograms, though still in use, gave way to phonograms – symbols which represented sounds – and those sounds were the spoken language of the people of Sumer. With phonograms, one could more easily convey precise meaning and so, in the example of the two sheep and the temple of Inanna, one could now make clear whether the sheep were going to or coming from the temple, whether they were living or dead, and what role they played in the life of the temple. Previously, one had only static images in pictographs showing objects like sheep and temples. With the development of phonograms one had a dynamic means of conveying motion to or from a location.<br />
Further, whereas in earlier writing (known as proto-cuneiform) one was restricted to lists of things, a writer could now indicate what the significance of those things might be. The scholar Ira Spar writes:<br />
<blockquote style="border-left-color: silver; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 3px; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px;">
This new way of interpreting signs is called the rebus principle. Only a few examples of its use exist in the earliest stages of cuneiform from between 3200 and 3000 B.C. The consistent use of this type of phonetic writing only becomes apparent after 2600 B.C. It constitutes the beginning of a true writing system characterized by a complex combination of word-signs and phonograms—signs for vowels and syllables—that allowed the scribe to express ideas. By the middle of the Third Millennium B.C., cuneiform primarily written on clay tablets was used for a vast array of economic, religious, political, literary, and scholarly documents.</blockquote>
<b>Writing and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/literature/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Literature</a></b><br />
This new means of communication allowed scribes to record the events of their times as well as their religious beliefs and, in time, to create an art form which was not possible before the written word: literature. The first writer in history known by name is the Mesopotamian priestess<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Enheduanna/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Enheduanna</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(2285-2250 BCE), daughter of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Sargon_of_Akkad/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sargon of Akkad</a>, who wrote her hymns to the goddess Inanna and signed them with her name and seal. The so-called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Matter of Aratta</i>, four poems dealing with King Enmerkar of Uruk and his son Lugalbanda, were probably composed between 2112-2004 BCE (though only written down between 2017-1763 BCE). In the first of them,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Enmerkar and The Lord of Aratta</i>, it is explained that writing developed because the messenger of King Enmerkar, going back and forth between him and the King of the city of Aratta, eventually had too much to remember and so Enmerkar had the idea to write his messages down; and so writing was born. <i>The Epic of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/gilgamesh/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Gilgamesh</a></i>, considered the first epic tale in the world and among the oldest extant literature, was composed at some point earlier than c. 2150 BCE when it was written down and deals with the great king of Uruk (and descendent of Enmerkar and Lugalbanda) Gilgamesh and his quest for the meaning of life. The myths of the people of Mesopotamia, the stories of their gods and heroes, their history, their methods of building, of burying their dead, of celebrating feast days, were now all able to be recorded for posterity. So important was writing to the Mesopotamians that, under the Assyrian King<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Ashurbanipal/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Ashurbanipal</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(685-627 BCE) over 30,000 clay tablet books were collected in the library of his capital at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/nineveh/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Nineveh</a>. Ashurbanipal was hoping to preserve the heritage, culture, and history of the region and understood clearly the importance of the written word in achieving this end. Among the many books in his library, Ashurbanipal included works of literature, such as the tale of Gilgamesh or the story of Etana, because he realized that literature articulates not just the story of a certain people, but of all people. The historian Durant writes:<br />
<blockquote style="border-left-color: silver; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 3px; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px;">
Literature is at first words rather than letters, despite its name; it arises as clerical chants or magic charms, recited usually by the priests, and transmitted orally from memory to memory.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Carmina</i>, as the Romans named poetry, meant both verses and charms;<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>ode</i>, among the Greeks, meant originally a magic spell; so did the English<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>rune</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>lay</i>, and the German<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Lied</i>. Rhythm and meter, suggested, perhaps, by the rhythms of nature and bodily life, were apparently developed by magicians or shamans to preserve, transmit, and enhance the magic incantations of their verse. Out of these sacerdotal origins, the poet, the orator, and the historian were differentiated and secularized: the orator as the official lauder of the king or solicitor of the deity; the historian as the recorder of the royal deeds; the poet as the singer of originally sacred chants, the formulator and preserver of heroic legends, and the musician who put his tales to music for the instruction of populace and kings.</blockquote>
<b>The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/alphabet/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Alphabet</a></b><br />
The role of the poet in preserving heroic legends would become an important one in cultures throughout the ancient world. The Mesopotamian scribe Shin-Legi-Unninni (wrote 1300-1000 BCE) would help preserve and transmit<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>The Epic of Gilgamesh</i>.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/homer/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Homer</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(c. 800 BCE) would do the same for the Greeks and Virgil (70-19 BCE) for the Romans. The Indian epic<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Mahabharata</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(written down c. 400 BCE) preserves the oral legends of that region in the same way the tales and legends of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/scotland/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Scotland</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Ireland do. All of these works, and those which came after them, were only made possible through the advent of writing. The early cuneiform writers established a system which would completely change the nature of the world in which they lived. The past, and the stories of the people, could now be preserved through writing. The Phoenicians’ contribution of the alphabet made writing easier and more accessible to other cultures, but the basic system of putting symbols down on paper to represent words and concepts began much earlier. Durant notes:<br />
<blockquote style="border-left-color: silver; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 3px; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px;">
The Phoenicians did not create the alphabet, they marketed it; taking it apparently from<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/egypt/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Egypt</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Crete, they imported it piecemeal to<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Tyre/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Tyre</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/sidon/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sidon</a>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/Byblos/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Byblos</a>, and exported it to every city on the<a href="http://www.ancient.eu.com/mediterranean/" style="color: #b52600; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Mediterranean</a>; they were the middlemen, not the producers, of the alphabet. By the time of Homer the Greeks were taking over this Phoenician – or the allied Aramaic – alphabet, and were calling it by the Semitic names of the first two letters,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Alpha</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Beta</i>; Hebrew<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Aleph</i>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Beth</i>.</blockquote>
Early writing systems, imported to other cultures, evolved into the written language of those cultures so that the Greek and Latin would serve as the basis for European script in the same way that the Semitic Aramaic script would provide the basis for Hebrew, Arabic, and possibly Sanskrit. The materials of writers have evolved as well, from the cut reeds with which early Mesopotamian scribes marked the clay tablets of cuneiform to the reed pens and papyrus of the Egyptians, the parchment of the scrolls of the Greeks and Romans, the calligraphy of the Chinese, on through the ages to the present day of computerized composition and the use of processed paper. In whatever age, since its inception, writing has served to communicate the thoughts and feelings of the individual and of that person’s culture, their collective history, and their experiences with the human condition, and to preserve those experiences for future generations.</div>
</div>
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6979387824407499698.post-91203470416892916332016-07-27T03:59:00.000+01:002016-07-27T03:59:38.080+01:00Rahman<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tQRWCpIxEx8" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<br />
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/R-dXS5TI_dQ" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
<br />
<iframe width="420" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6jbb7miKWaI" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><br />
emmanuelhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08566669753834950327noreply@blogger.com0